World Agroforestry Centre | agroforestree database 4.0

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This database provides detailed information on a total of 670 agroforestry tree species. It is intended to help field workers and researchers in selecting appropriate species for agroforestry systems and technologies.

For each species, the database includes information on identity, ecology and distribution, propagation and management, functional uses, pests and diseases and a bibliography.

This project has been funded by the British Department for International Development (DFID, the European Union and the World Agroforestry Centre (ICRAF).

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Acacia auriculiformis	Newly emerged seedlings should receive 50% shade. Once they are established, 70% full sunlight is optimal. In genera, 3-4 months are needed to raise transplantable seedlings that are 25 cm tall. The optimal planting density is not clearly established. Most current plantings are spaced at 2-4 x 2-4 m, the closer spacing being more suitable for firewood and pulp plantations. Removal of lower branches and of young plants has been suggested as a means of improving stem form and of reducing the incidence of multiple stems. A. auriculiformis responds well to pollarding. Young trees respond to coppicing better than old trees, but the tree does not sprout vigorously or prolifically. Best results are obtained if the stump is cut at a height of 0.6-1 m above the ground. Under favourable conditions, trees may reach a height of 15 m in 5 years and produce an annual wood increment of 15-20 cubic m/ha over 10-12 years. An increment in height of 2-4 m per year in the first few years is common even on soils of low fertility. On relatively fertile Javanese soils receiving 2 000 mm annual rainfall, a mean annual increment of 15-20 m³/ha is obtainable but on less fertile or highly eroded sites the increment is reduced to 8-12 m³/ha. Recommended rotation is 4-5 years for fuelwood, 8-10 years for pulp and 12-15 years for timber. One or two thinnings are required with longer rotations, depending on initial spacing, site quality and tree growth.
Acacia cincinnata	Saplings may be coppiced at higher cutting heights (about 0.5 m) but show limited regrowth if cut near ground level. Trees are site sensitive, being prone to premature senescence, gummosis and crown thinning if planted off site. The stem form can vary markedly in field trials, from specimens with a straight, tapering bole and small, horizontal branches to a bushy shrub, indicating the importance of species site matching and screening of provenances before embarking on broad-scale plantings. Best performance is achieved on deep, loamy soils and a short dry season. Trees have shown good wind resistance to tropical cyclones and typhoons. Growth rate is moderate in the early years, typically 1.5-2.5 m/year. Height growth and a dbh of 1-2.5 cm/year are recorded in humid parts of Southeast Asia. The most rapid growth has been recorded from an ex-forest site in Sabah, Malaysia, where annual height growth increment was 4.1m/year and dbh increment of 3 cm/year. On favourable sites, the rotation period for sawn timber is expected to be about 25 years.
Acacia erioloba	A. erioloba, which bears valuable pod crops, can be grown on perennial grassland at a rate of 5-10 trees/ha without damage to the grass yield. It is advisable that the tree be grown in the habitat to which it is naturally adapted. The number of pods/tree is 25-1 200, and each pod weighs 7.4-30.2 g. The total weight of pods produced is about 600 kg/ha, with an annual yield of pods from a natural stand of mature trees being conservatively estimated at 1-2 t/ha. Cattle pass large quantities of seeds (about 50 seeds/dropping) in their dung. This facilitates bush encroachment by A. erioloba and other acacias with indehiscent pods. It is therefore included among 1652 taxa shown to be weedy in certain situations in southern Africa. It competes with other plants for space, light and nutriment. This species is valued throughout its range for its products and services and is rarely the subject of eradication measures. Two chemicals that are selective of woody species, tebuthiuron and ethidimuron, successfully control the species should it become a problem. Fire causes young A. erioloba trees to coppice and well-established, scrubby trees may thickening up.
Acacia leucophloea	Direct sowing in the field can be done in lines 3 m apart and thinned after the first growing season to 0.5 m. Seedlings should be planted at 2.5-3 m x 2.5-3 m in July when I year old. Weed control must be maintained for a minimum of two years. Livestock must be excluded from plantations. Annual cultivation around the seedlings improves growth and survival. On fertile soils, A. leucophloea seedlings grow quickly, up to 60 cm a year. Under irrigation, height growth may reach 7-10 m in 5-6 years. Seedlings are light demanding and sensitive to weed competition, fire and frost. In order to exploit sufficient soil moisture, seedling root growth generally exceeds shoot growth. Once established, trees are very tolerant of drought, fire and frost. Pruned or injured trees produce thorny branches and stump sprouts. The tree coppices well, mean annual increment over the 12-year rotation period is 9 cu m/ha of stem wood and 11 cu m/ha for wood over 7 cm diameter.
Acacia mearnsii	The trees have strong light requirements and respond to thinning in the early years. Growth rate is comparatively slow for the 1st 1 or 2 years. Thereafter, both height and diameter increments are rapid up to the age of 6-7 years, after which they fall off gradually. A. mearnsii has low coppicing power, discouraging people from propagating through coppicing. Protection of trees from fire is necessary, as fire may scorch the bark and reduce its value. A. mearnsii is easily killed by frost during the 1st 2-5 years of its life, although stands fertilized with super-phosphate are more resistant. Harvesting 10-year-old trees results in the removal of large quantities of soil nutrients. Therefore, before planting, NPK fertilizers are added; application of lime has also been found to considerably increase yield. Taproot development largely depends upon the depth of the soil, but it has the general tendency to develop a superficial lateral root system. Because of this, trees are liable to being uprooted by strong gales during the monsoon season. Therefore windbelts of Eucalyptus globulus (blue gum) and Pinus patula could be planted at the periphery -- 5 rows of E. globulus alternating with 50 rows of A. mearnsii. Eucalyptus globulus may be planted 3 years before A. mearnsii. As the natural regeneration in clear-felled areas is very dense, thinning is done in the 3rd year. Trees are planted at spacing of 2.5-3.3 x 2.5-3.3. The optimum economic densities for the ages of 7, 9 and 11 years would be 1977-2224, 1483-1730 and 1236-1483 trees/ha, respectively.
Acacia pennatula	Coppices well and this makes it suitable for management of woodlots.
Acacia saligna	Production for browse and wood can begin 3 years after planting out, gradually building to 6 years. The impact of various management methods on long-term productivity is not well understood. In Mauritius, the management options tried include trimming followed by direct grazing and direct browsing with periodic pruning. A rotation of 7-10 years or coppicing may be used. In Mediterranean countries, firewood from A. saligna is harvested on a coppice rotation of 5-10 years. Human interference and grazing should be discouraged for rapid success. Lupines should be sown where necessary to enrich the ground cover.
Acacia senegal	Weeding should be immediate in the season following planting and for the following 2 growing seasons. Protection of young trees from livestock browsing is essential. Seedlings are rather slow growing with initial annual increments of 30-40 cm. For firewood production, trees can be cut on a rotation of 20 years using coppice with standards, lopping up to 50% of the lower crown in rainy season.
Acacia sieberiana	The trees respond well to lopping, pollarding and coppicing. The seedlings need to be protected from fire and browsing.
Acacia tortilis	Initial integrated soil and water conservation measures help check mortality and boost early growth and establishment of trees in very unfavourable conditions. The fast-growing tree develops a long lateral root system and creates problems in marshy fields, paths and roadways. It grows fairly well even on shallow soils less than 25 cm deep. However, the plant assumes shrubby growth and must be widely spaced for the lateral root growth. It responds vigorously to felling by producing numerous coppice shoots, provided there is no interference from browsing animals. Lopping of entire branches does not seem to affect the vitality of the tree. Studies conducted on its nitrogen-fixing ability, photosynthetic efficiency, seedling morphology and drought resistance have shown that it is relatively a better species than Prosopsis juliflora. A tree 6-7 years old on average yields about 5-6 kg of clean seeds. Planting is done in pits 60 cm deep dug at a spacing of 5 x 5 m and filled with weathered soil. If raised as a windbreak, 3 rows are planted spaced at 9 x 10 m, and 50 gm/plant of ammonium sulphate is applied at watering time. Plants grow to about 1.5 m in 2 years, should be protected from grazing and mulching should be practised. 2 weedings in the 1st year and 1 in the 2nd year are considered sufficient.
Acrocarpus fraxinifolius	In India, to ensure sufficient natural regeneration of this light-demanding species, the forest floor is cleared of weeds and raked, after which the canopy is gradually removed as young trees become established. Frequent tending is required until the crowns of the young trees close. Periodic weeding is required until they are well into their sapling stage; the 1st thinning should be performed 3-4 years after planting. As the tree requires a large crown for optimal growth, regular thinning is necessary until the stand is fully developed. On favourable sites, a mean annual increment of 10 cubic m/ha may be expected. In Malawi, 2-year-old trees yielded 33 t/ha of total aboveground biomass. A. fraxinifolius coppices vigorously. Rotation period for fuel is 8-10 years and for timber 30-40 years. The tree should not be planted near houses as dry branches drop off. Competes with crops if grown in fields.
Adenanthera pavonina	Growth is initially slow but increases rapidly after the 1st year, during which average annual growth rates of 2.3-2.6 cm in diameter and 2-2.3 m in height (recorded in American Samoa) can be attained. Trees planted 1 x 2 m apart for windbreaks and at 2 x 2 m in plantations can be thinned in 3-5 years to provide fuelwood and construction materials. For shade trees, spacing varies from 5 to 10 m, depending on the companion crop and site. Trees resprout easily, allowing for coppice management with good survival. Despite inability to suppress weeds, seedlings are hardy and can survive with minimal maintenance. The tree is susceptible to breakage in high winds, with most of the damage occurring in the crown.
Ailanthus altissima	The tree can grow to 3-4 m in height during a 5-month growing season. Ailanthus is a prolific seeder but also spreads by root suckers and coppices readily. Planting root cuttings of male trees would eliminate the seeding problem. Root suckers can be problematic in fields as well as sidewalks and buildings. Branches should be lopped for fuel before the seeds mature.
Ailanthus excelsa	A. excelsa has a strong light requirements. The recommended spacing is 6x 6m for Agroforestry and 3 x 3 m in block plantations.The seedlings are susceptible to frost and are easily suppressed by weeds as a result of shading. Prolonged drought also kills the seedlings,although the poles and trees are drought resistant. Waterlogging and poor drainage cause high seedling mortality. It coppices well and produces root suckers that should be thinned to reduce competition.
Albizia gummifera	Lopping and coppicing while young to improve form.
Albizia julibrissin	The silk tree is fast growing, prefers full sun and wet soil. Seedlings transplant readily, and are very adaptable. The tree withstands drought, high pH, soil salinity and wind. Because of its aggressive colonizing attributes the silk tree can be an ecological threat to native species, some ways of curbing its spread include use of herbicides on young trees, bark girdling which is effective on large trees where the use of herbicides is impractical. Systemic herbicides such as glyphosate and triclopyr can kill entire plants.
Albizia lebbeck	A. lebbeck coppices well, responds to pollarding, pruning and lopping, and will produce root suckers if the roots are exposed. Typical spacing is 3 x 3 m for fuelwood, and 5 x 5 m for timber. Fuelwood plantations spaced at 3 x 3 m clear felled on a 10-year rotation produce about 50 cubic m/ha of stacked fuelwood. In Queensland A. lebbek reaches about 11 m in height and 50 cm dbh in 30 years. The trees are vulnerable to strong winds and are killed by even light fires.
Albizia odoratissima	Recommended spacing varies from 6 x 6 to 12 x 12 m. Seedlings are planted in pits 90 cm deep and 45 cm wide and stumps 90 cm deep and 75 cm wide. For direct sowing, seed should be sown in lines 3 m apart. They should be fertilized during planting. Recommended fertilization rates per seedling are 10 kgs of rotted cattle manure, 200 g TSP, 2.5 kg wood ash and 1 kg slaked lime. For trees under 2.5 m height broadcast 300 grams TSP in a 1.5 m, up to 4 m height 333 grams TSP is applied to a 3 m diameter-circle around the tree. Fertilization should be repeated 3 times per year; April, June and August. On good sites 5-year-old trees can be 5 m in height and 14 cm in diameter. A mean annual diameter increment of 1.3 cm has been recorded for this species. A. odoratissima is classified as moderately light demanding. Juvenile trees require shade. Trees coppice well, shoots reaching a height of 3 m in 2 years. It is susceptible to fire, resistant to weed competition, drought and regenerates naturally in sheltered areas with good soil.
Albizia procera	A. procera is a large, fast-growing tree, with a mean annual increment in diameter of 1-4 cm; it attains a dbh of 40-60 cm in 30 years. Spacing of 2-3 x 0.5 m in pure stands results in canopy closure in about 3 years. Trees that are suppressed in dense stands will die from lack of light. Due to the light crown, regular weeding and control of the undergrowth are required. Therefore A. procera is often mixed with other species and planted at a spacing of 3 x 1 m. Mixed planting and pruning in open stands can improve stem form and give a bushy crown. Thinning is necessary after 9 years. Because of its aggressive growth, A. procera is a potential weed. This is particularly true in the Caribbean, where it grows faster than many native species. A. procera seedlings, saplings and larger trees all coppice vigorously when damaged. The application of phosphorus fertilizer can improve nodulation and nitrogen fixation, particularly on infertile soils. Natural forests are managed for timber production by coppicing on a 40-year rotation. Fuelwood plantations are managed on a 20-year rotation. Plantations should be weeded twice in the 1st year and once during the 2nd. During weeding soil should not be unduly exposed; only weeds directly interfering with seedlings should be removed.
Albizia zygia	A rapidly growing tree, a two year old tree can be 3 m tall. Has little management needs, however pollarding and coppicing are recommended for form improvement and propagation.
Aleurites moluccana	Seedlings are planted at a density of 300/ha. Once established, trees require little to no attention. Bears 2 heavy crops each year; harvested when mature. In plantations nut yields are estimated at 5-20 t/ha nuts, each tree producing 30-80 kg. Oil production varies from 15 to 20% of nut weight. Most oil produced in India, Sri Lanka and other tropical regions is used locally and does not feature in international trade. Coppices when young and responds to pollarding when old.
Alnus japonica	A. japonica is shade tolerant and tends to retain its lower branches. While it is deciduous in Japan, it seems evergreen in the Philippines. Under flooded conditions, it retains leaves and can almost maintain its growth rate by forming adventitious roots. In the Philippines, the tree is planted at 15 m x 15 m to provide shade for coffee planted at 2 m x 2 m. The trees are pruned to a height of 3-5 m. The tree coppices easily and is sensitive to fire. On fertile sites, poles and firewood can be harvested after 5 years, small-diameter timber can be harvested in less than 10 years.
Alnus rubra	A. rubra is a pioneer species intolerant of competition but capable of rapid juvenile growth. Young trees coppice vigorously from the stump especially if the timing of the cut is optimal. For short coppice and pulp-log rotations, estimated total stem yields are 17-21 cu m/ha/yr. Thinning to 4-5 m x 4-5 m ensures tree lean is minimized. A. rubra tends to become weedy in disturbed sites, inoculation with the fungus Nectria ditissima has been employed to control this tendency. The tree self-prunes.
Alphitonia zizyphoides	The species grows well in monocultures. In shaded situations and inside plantations the species has excellent self-pruning characteristics, and is likely to pollard reasonably well. For joint production of timber, fuelwood and medicine, a close initial spacing is recommended in order to encourage a straight bole form and self-pruning. Spacing should vary between 5-50 trees per hectare. In the traditional system of managed natural regeneration, the straightest and best formed saplings should be weeded to keep them free of climbers and occasionally high-pruned to produce clear boles. Weeding should be undertaken frequently in the first two years prior to canopy closure. From about age 3-6 years, the smaller trees should be thinned to provide fuelwood. Since border trees develop poor form, it is preferable to plant outside edges with a different species.
Alstonia boonei	Growth is rapid, and it is not uncommon for an annual increment of 1.8 m to occur in the sapling stage. It grows in a succession of crowns and should not be pruned but left to develop secondary crowns, which will later kill off the lower ones. Mature trees are often damaged by wind and decay but are fast growing and coppice readily from the base. The tree snaps easily in strong wind and therefore should not be planted near buildings.
Annona senegalensis	A. senegalensis should be protected from fire and browsing. The planting site should be cleared, and the site should be weeded, as the young plants are not hardy enough to compete with weeds. A light shade should also be provided. Fruit cracking is common.
Anogeissus latifolia	The leaves of the seedlings are killed by severe frost. Young trees are very intolerant of weed competition but can stand light shade when young, however, adult trees are strong light demanders. The tree produces root suckers, coppices and pollards well, but these exhibit great seasonal variability. Coppicing and pollarding should not be done during the rainy season. Thinning of coppice is necesssary. A. latifolia is not very frost tender. Planting is done in 30 cu cm pits, usually after the monsoon rains (July-August). Planting operations must be suspended if no rain is expected for a few days after planting. Plantation areas need protection from animals.
Anthocephalus cadamba	The tree is a light demander, however the saplings require protection from the hot sun. It is sensitive to frost, drought, excessive moisture and grazing. The young seedlings are highly susceptible to weeds and should be weeded regularly. 2-month seedlings can be transplanted in nursery beds or into polythene bags, where they can be retained before planting at the start of the monsoon rains. To ensure successful establishment, seedlings should be planted out with their balls of earth. The tree coppices well. The growth of kadam is usually fast for the first 6-8 years. At the age of 10-15 years the trees can be felled.
Araucaria bidwillii	Trees may coppice slightly from cut branches and stems, and they should be planted under full sunlight.
Argania spinosa	The trees start to bear fruits when 5-6 years old with maximum production at 60 years and has a life span of 200-250 years. Trees coppice readily when cut. The tree also has the ability to retreat into a state of dormancy for a prolonged period in the advent of drought conditions and thus does not necessarily bear fruit every year. The tree has been protected since 1925 by a law, which regulates its use by local people, the woodlands suffer from continued degradation from intense use such as fuelwood gathering and grazing.
Azanza garckeana	The species requires large amounts of light; hence the planting site should be cleared before planting out. Intensive weeding is necessary during the 1st few years after planting. Annual fires wipe out most of the young seedlings and saplings. Therefore, protecting the woodland where the species grows naturally helps to propagate it. Coppicing is a suitable practice. The trees are reasonably slow growing, up to 600 mm/year in the warmer areas and up to 400 mm in areas receiving some frost.
Balanites aegyptiaca	Coppices and pollards well and can regenerate after lopping and heavy browsing. Where fruit is the principal interest, pollarding and coppicing for obtaining fodder are seldom employed.
Barringtonia procera	Cutnut is naturally self-pruning of lower branches up to about one-fifth of the height of the tree. Trees coppice and pollarded trees re-sprout well. In a small-scale plantation, seedlings should be planted at 5 x 5 m spacing, or 400 trees/ha. In agroforestry systems mixed with other species, 40 trees/ha are optimal. For silvopasture, a low planting density of 10-15 trees/ha is recommended to avoid shading of the pasture grass. Seedlings may be planted on cleared land or as line-plantings in secondary forests, in which selective thinning of the forest allows more light to reach the seedlings. Weeding is crucial for the first 2-3 years of growth in the field. As the trees mature, weeding operations should be scaled down to cleaning once a year (largely by removing vines from the trees). Trees that are too tall should be pollarded to reduce height and ensure safety around villages. Note: There is no record of cutnut becoming invasive, and in situ observation on the distribution of wildings appears to rule out any potential invasiveness.
Bauhinia purpurea	B. purpurea should be grown in full sun on well-drained soil. For successful establishment of Bauhinia, protection from grazing or browsing for the first 2-3 years is necessary, because the young saplings are much relished by animals. In regular plantations, the trees should be kept adequately thinned as they grow. The tree may need occasional pruning to develop a uniform shape when it is young. Growth rate is relatively good in lower altitudes but above 1600m, growth is very slow and plantation scarcely justified. The tree coppices well and can stand heavy lopping fairly well. It has been cultivated sporadically, generally in and around cultivation and habitations, or in mixed forests or avenue plantations, no systematic block plantations have been established. Branches tend to develop low on the trunk and droop toward the ground forming a large bush if left unpruned. The species has a tendency to show nutritional deficiencies, especially potassium. Trees are frost- and drought-tolerant and flower best on dry soils. The species is reported weedy in gardens in Hawaii.
Bauhinia variegata	Direct-sown lines need to be thinned to about 1 m spacing at the end of 1st year. In regular plantations, the trees should be kept adequately thinned as they grow. The tree coppices well and can stand heavy lopping fairly well. Because B. variegata has been cultivated sporadically, generally in and around cultivation and habitations, or in mixed forests or avenue plantations, no systematic block plantations have been established. It has therefore been treated according to the objectives in view, so applicable management practices have not been evolved.
Berchemia discolor	Plant groups of trees in protected areas in well-drained soil. B. discolor is a good tree to plant at or near watering points, as its roots are not aggressive. The growth rate is relatively fast, 600-800 mm/year. The tree is often found growing naturally near fertile termite mounds, so applying fertilizer at the time of planting may be useful. Tending the crop should include regular watering, slashing and spot weeding until the plants are well established. Coppicing, pollarding and lopping are all practised.
Boswellia serrata	The mixed forests in which B. serrata occurs are worked under selection-cum-improvement or under one of the coppice systems such as the coppice with standards, with a rotation of 40 years, or the coppice with reserve system, with the same rotation age. It produces root suckers, coppices and pollards well. The power to produce these vegetative shoots depends upon the climate and edaphic factors.
Bridelia micrantha	B. micrantha grows fast on good sites; it is one of the fastest growing indigenous trees of South Africa, with a growth rate of up to 2 m/year. Pollarding and coppicing are practised. Coppice shoots are produced after the trees are felled. Root suckers are produced if the roots are wounded, for example by trampling animals or during cultivation. Most of the seedlings and saplings succumb to competition with other weed plants; thus, crop refining could help in promoting natural regeneration. Ripe fruits are very popular with many of the fruit-eating birds, making B. micrantha a must for the bird garden. Farmers in the warm, high-rainfall areas can consider planting trees in a plantation as a long-term project for hardwood production. Trees can be cut when they are 30 years old. B. micrantha has an aggressive root system and cannot be planted close to buildings or paved areas.
Broussonetia papyrifera	The planting site should be well prepared to remove grass and weeds. Weeding is required only during the first year. Most plantations of B. papyrifera in India and Pakistan are from self-sown seed, coppice or root suckers. Plantations are worked on a short coppice rotation of 3-10 years, owing to the extremely rapid growth of the coppice shoots as the species gives a high yield. It is a hardy, fast-growing tree and under favourable conditions (hot and moist climates), annual increments of 0.6-2.5 cm (diameter) and 2.6 m (height) have been recorded. With a 10-year rotation for pulp and paper production, annual yields of 8-12 t/ha can be expected in low rainfall areas and 21-30 t/ha in high rainfall areas. In Japan it is often grown on a short coppice rotation of 3-4 years. B. papyrifera is a light demander but can grow under adverse light conditions as well. It is a highly invasive species and spreads quickly on newly exposed site. It spreads by seed, primarily through birds, and by root suckers, which it sends out in great numbers from its superficial roots. It is frost hardy but does not tolerate drought. It is sensitive to root competition and cannot grow on poor sites with heavy weed and grass growth. It is tolerant to urban pollution (including airborne sulphur dioxide), moisture-sapping wind in hot and dry regions, and nitrogen loading near fertilizer factories.
Bucida buceras	Spacing of 3 m x 3 m is recommended where the crown closes in 10-20 years. Thinning is necessary otherwise the larger trees suppress smaller ones. Ultimate spacing of 12-15 m between trees is desirable for timber production. The main branches bend down, making the tree top-heavy and there is a need for regular pruning to retain a compact habit and protect trees from storm damage. The tree coppices until it reaches saw log size (30 cm dbh). The tree is resistant to hurricane damage, a light demander and should be protected from fire. B. buceras should not be used for shade where cars will be parked regularly because the tree exudes a dark, sticky substance.
Calliandra calothyrsus	C. calothyrsus is fast growing, easy to regenerate and manage. Because seedlings grow quickly, no special plantation management is needed, except for weeding in the 1st year. On infertile soils, fertilizer will improve early growth, although C. calothyrsus is less responsive to fertilizer than other tree legumes. In alley-cropping systems, C. calothyrsus should be pruned in cycles or up to 4 months to limit shade on associated crops. Highest yields obtained from coppicing when cut at 1 m. With seedlings, root pruning and side pruning is recommended to keep taproot checked and to encourage lateral root development.
Calodendrum capense	C. capense is slow growing in most conditions; it coppices while young, and pollarding is a suitable practice. In warm areas with high rainfall, the growth rate can be up to 850 mm/year. Trees can be planted either in the shade or in full sun. They respond well to regular watering, and cut flowers are long lasting in water.
Calophyllum inophyllum	The tree is said to be brittle and liable to damage by wind. In Zanzibar, it is planted on coral areas, where it grows at about 90 cm of height a year after initial establishment, which is very slow; frequent weeding is necessary until the crop is established. In plantation trials in Indonesia, the spacing of seedlings is usually 2 x 3 m. The species coppices moderately. The selective cutting system and removal of undesirable trees can enhance natural regeneration.
Cassia abbreviata	Pollarding, coppicing, trimming and pruning are recommended management strategies. Over-watering results in poor flower display. Root trimming is necessary because the plants develop a long taproot early and should be planted out in 1-2 weeks.
Cassia fistula	The tree coppices vigorously and produces root suckers freely.
Cassia javanica	C. javanica is not resistant to fire, but tolerates drought and shade. It coppices vigorously and can be pollarded.
Casuarina cunninghamiana	C. cunninghamiana is a long-lived, relatively fast-growing tree with average height increments of 1-2 m/year. Seedlings require protection from browsing stock and fire in initial stages of growth. It displays fairly good coppicing ability when young, and older trees are capable of producing root suckers. When introduced to exotic localities, inoculation of the seedlings with pure culture of effective strains of Frankia rhizobia is recommended to enable the species to fix atmospheric nitrogen.
Casuarina glauca	Irrigation is required to establish trees in desert areas. Moderately fast growing, and at the age of 7 years, the tree reaches an average height of 5 m with a 72% survival rate. By the age of 12 years, a yield of 295 cubic m/ha of wood and 34 t/ha of green foliage is expected; this is equivalent to 268 tonnes of total dry weight. In Israel, C. glauca outperforms other casuarinas, reaching 20 m in 12-14 years, even on saline water tables. Coppices and produces root suckers vigorously. Inoculation of seedlings with Frankia is recommended when introducing the species to new areas.
Casuarina junghuhniana	Seedlings can attain 3 m growth in height per year during the 1st 2-3 years. In plantations with a controlled water regime in Thailand, C. junghuhniana hybrid reaches 20 m in height and 15 cm in diameter in 5 years. Plantation-grown trees can be harvested throughout the year. In Thailand, a harvesting cycle of 5 years is used for poles and fuelwood planted at a spacing of 2 x 2-3 m. A mean annual increment of 10-15 cubic m/ha is generally obtainable. Weeding is necessary only during the 1st few years, after which the trees shed large amounts of branchlets to form a thick and dense mat of litter that suppresses weeds. The red-tipped C. junghuhniana is a poor self-pruner; it produces strong root suckers. Pruning in plantations up to a height of 2-2.5 m is often necessary to make the plantations more accessible for general maintenance. Trees respond well to coppicing and pollarding.
Cedrela serrata	C. serrata demands strong light. It produces root suckers in great abundance and coppices fairly well. The tree has a small crown and should therefore be grown in fairly dense crops, although overhead cover should be avoided or crooked stems may result as the tree tries to reach the light. Growth is fast when young, but the tree rarely attains a large girth; a rotation of 50 years is suitable.
Celtis australis	Planting out is carried out in December-January (autumn), when seedlings are leafless. Weeding and protection from livestock and fire are essential both in the nursery and after planting. C. australis is a light demander and is adversely affected by drought. The tree pollards and coppices well.
Chukrasia tabularis	In India, growth of seedlings proved moderately fast over the 1st 2 years. After 2 years, the plants had reached a height of 1.2-2.1 m; after 3 years, 2.8-3.4 m with a diameter of 4-5 cm; after 6 years, 5.5 m tall and a diameter of 15 cm, indicating a mean annual increment of 2.5 cm. Another source in India records a height of 13 m and a mean diameter of 5.2 cm for 5-year-old plants. A planting trial in western Java, using seeds from Sumatra, showed a mean height of 13 m and a mean diameter of 18 cm 10 years after planting. The tree coppices particularly well. First major thinning is required in the 4th year and thereafter every 5 years. The 1st thinning should be comparatively light as the species tends to branch and fork.
Cinnamomum camphora	Although yields of C. camphora are greater for old trees, leaves and woody material can be harvested regularly from plants over 5 years of age, which are kept in a bushy form by coppicing. The Chinese practice this form of harvesting. In China and India intensive site-preparation before planting out is common practice. It involves ploughing soil to a depth of 30 cm and digging individual planting holes 60 x 60 x 50 cm. Planting dates depend on the region. In China, stock is planted from January to March, in Tamil Nadu, India, in January-February. In other parts of India it is planted after the monsoon has set in. The planting age of seedlings depends on the region, site and purpose. Spacing is generally 2 x 2 m or 1.8 x 3.5 m.
Cinnamomum verum	C. verum usually coppices well. Commercial production of cinnamon bark entails cutting the stems down low after an initial establishment period and harvesting the bushy regrowth stems at regular intervals thereafter. Stems are cut during the rainy season to facilitate peeling of the bark in 2 longitudinal strips. Details of harvesting practice differ slightly from country to country, but the basic principles are the same. The bark strips are packed together in heaps for a day or 2, and then the outer bark is scraped off. The inner bark curls to form the cinnamon quill of commerce. Poor quality quills are used for oil extraction. Smaller pieces, from twigs and broken bark sections, are mixed together as ‘quillings’ and are ground up and steamed to extract the essential oil. In Sri Lanka, a 1st harvest may be obtained after 3-4 years, although quality and yield improve with subsequent cuttings. Under cultivation, the continual removal of shoots by cropping almost to ground level results in the formation of a dense bush 2-2.5 m high with a number of leafy, coppiced shoots. Wild trees reach 20 m in height. On plantations, cinnamon is cut every 2 years, and the flush of straight shoots generated by coppicing produces the bark that is peeled for cinnamon quills. The local conditions, particularly the type of soil under which the crop is grown, have a profound effect on the quality of the bark produced.
Combretum collinum	The slow-growing trees respond well to coppicing, lopping and pollarding.
Combretum molle	Trees are fast growing; lopping and coppicing are suitable practices.
Cordia africana	The species grows fairly fast, reaching 7-8 m in 7 years; management practices include pollarding, lopping and coppicing.
Cordia alliodora	Line planting at 2.5 x 10 m and subsequent removal of the overstorey canopy is satisfactory for natural forest. Secondary and disturbed forests require earlier capture of the site to avoid prolonged intensive weeding operations. This could be facilitated by reducing the distance between the lines to 5 m. The species’ simple nursery requirements and the ease with which plantations can be raised from seedlings, stumps, or even direct sowing are important factors that greatly facilitate plantation management. Even when grown as a solitary tree in the open, C. alliodora maintains a single, persistent stem and narrow crown, and prunes itself to about two-thirds of its total height. It coppices well.
Cordia sinensis	The species is fairly fast growing and tolerates lopping, pollarding, and coppicing.
Crotalaria goodiaeformis	The tree is frequently copppiced or uprooted for fodder and has a good survival, planting in shaded conditions improves survivability. Recommended spacing for C. goodiaeformis is between 45 and 90 cm.
Crotalaria micans	Early growth of C. micans is fast and can cover soil in 3 weeks after germination and reach 2.5 m after 3 months. It reseeds itself once established. C. micans can be cut repeatedly provided it is not cut too low and a few leaves per stem are left. Yields of 40 t/ha fresh material 4 months after planting have been reported from Java, containing about 150 kg nitrogen.
Croton macrostachyus	Trees are fairly fast growing on good sites but grow slowly on drier sites. Lopping, pollarding and coppicing are suitable practices.
Croton megalocarpus	The species regenerates well through seedlings, and under favourable climatic conditions may sometimes become invasive. Young trees coppice well after pruning, but fruiting is unlikely with intensive pruning, such as in hedgerow management. In agroforestry systems, it is sometimes managed as scattered trees in farmland because of its open canopy and usefulness for mulching.
Cryptomeria japonica	Pricking out at a spacing of 90-120 cm is effected in June. Shade is removed after 3 months, and seedlings are transplanted when 3 years old to the field at a spacing of 5.4 m in June or December-January. Pure plantation produces better quality wood than mixed stands where the trees tend to grow fast. The sugi should be grown in full sun, sheltered from harsh winds and where the air circulation is good especially in summer to prevent leaf blight. Although plants may grow 60-120 cm /yr when young, they rarely require pruning if properly located in the landscape. The tree may require pruning for access beneath the canopy. It thrives best with afternoon shade in the southern part of its range. Unlike most conifers, this species can be coppiced.
Cunninghamia lanceolata	C. lanceolata is a fast growing species and coppices well. It is topophytic, meaning if cuttings are taken from lateral growth, they grow laterally and if taken from vertical growth, they grow vertically. It also sprouts from the roots if cut down. It requires protection from windswept sites. In plantation establishment, site preparation includes tillage to a depth of 20-30 cm. Initial stocking rate is 2500-3600 stems/ha. Tending should be carried out 2-3 times during the growing season in each of the first 3 years after planting. Pruning is not usually practiced. In forests, the lower branches eventually self-prune when the tree canopy closes. Thinning 2- 3 times is done according to initial density and growth. About 1500 trees/ha are retained as a final crop. It produces good height growth from 3-10 years, with mean annual increment of 0.5-1 m height up to 3 cm. Volume growth occurs at 30-35 years old when the mean annual height increment decreases to 0.2-0.3 m/yr. Total harvest volume is estimated at 500-800 m3/ha.
Cyphomandra betacea	Cyphomandra betacea is a fast-growing tree on good sites. Cuttings give low-branched bushy trees, which may need to be deblossomed to promote growth in the 1st year. Seedlings do not always come true to type. They grow vigorously and may reach a height of 1.5-1.8 m before laterals emerge. The plants grow continuously and easily shed old leaves. In New Zealand, trees are planted in single or double rows, e.g. at 2.5 x 2 m or 4.5 x 1.5 m against (3.5 + 1.5) m x 2 m or (4 + 2.5) m x 3 m, giving densities of 2000-1000 plants/ha. Much higher densities are reported from other countries. Orchards need to be well drained; often the trees are planted on hills or ridges. Because of the shallow root system, deep cultivation should be avoided, but mulching is very beneficial. Young seedlings are cut back to a height of about 1 m to encourage branching, and each year the plants are pruned at the beginning of the crop cycle. This annual pruning consists of cutting back and thinning out the branches that have fruited to rejuvenate the bearing wood and to limit tree spread. Time of pruning influences harvest time. Coppicing can be practised. The brittle branches are prone to break when loaded with fruit; thus sheltered locations should be chosen or windbreaks must be provided. Plants respond well to nitrogen fertilizer, particularly after the 1st fruit has set. In the tropics, using a generous amount of organic matter and manure when making hills for planting minimizes the need for additional fertilizer. Irrigation during the dry season is important to sustain growth and to improve fruit size and yield. Yields per tree average around 20 kg of fruit/year, and commercial yields are about 15-17 t/ha. Trees are short-lived; 12 years is the highest recorded lifespan of an orchard.
Dactyladenia barteri	In traditional cropping systems, D. barteri is retained, planted scattered, or in hedgerows. Established trees coppice well, even after pollarding or burning and are fire resistant. It is planted at a spacing of 2-3 m between the hedgerows in fallow systems in Nigeria. Planted at 4 m x 4m, it can produce 6t/ha dry prunings, 4 ton twigs and 9 ton wood within 8 months with a nutrient yield of 85 kg N, 5 kg P, 43 kg K, 18 kg Ca and 46 kg Mg. At the beginning of the cropping cycle, the shrubs are burnt and the stems cut at a height of 10-20 cm above ground.
Dalbergia sissoo	A fast-growing species; growth rates of 3.7 m in 1 year, 5 m in 3 years, 11 m in 5 years and 15 m in 10 years have been recorded. D. sissoo plantations are established in block or strip plantations at 1.8 x 1.8 m to 4 x 4 m. Closer spacing is used for straight timber of good quality. When the canopy closes, at about 6 years, 30-40% of the stems are thinned to selectively remove suppressed, diseased and badly formed trees. Thinning is recommended every 10 years where the rotation is 30-60 years. There is evidence that the stumps begin to lose vigour after 2 or 3 rotations when managed as a coppice crop. It coppices vigorously up to about 20 years of age.
Dichrostachys cinerea	It grows at a medium to slow rate, 6-8 cm/year. For fuelwood plantations, dune stabilization, ravine afforestation, or erosion control, the spacing should be 3 x 5 m; for silvopasture, 8 x 8 m. Dense plantings help stabilize gully plugs and check-dams. To get maximum fuel biomass, the plants should be harvested at 10 years. However, if the production objective is only fodder, trees should be coppiced every other year after reaching about 5-6 m in height. The plant has moderately vigorous coppicing ability and can also be pollarded and lopped. A plant in the range of 7-8.5 cm collar diameter is suitable for coppicing, and the whole plant can be harvested 15 cm above ground level. The number of regenerated shoots varies between 5 and 9, of which 2-3 branches attain better growth in height, diameter and biomass. For soil conservation, the species should not be disturbed in any way. Its prolific root suckers will then provide natural spread for complete ground cover within a few years. Later a fodder harvest can be taken by lopping leaves and pods. In the 6th year, the total aboveground biomass is about 31 kg (dry). Thus an average yield of 3.4 t (1.2 t dry) fodder and 22.8 t (11.1 t dry) firewood may be expected on the 6th year from 1 ha of wasteland. It yields about 1 kg of seed pods/tree. D. cinerea enroaches rapidly on overgrazed, trampled ground and on old lands where the grass cover has been removed. It is difficult to eradicate as it shoots again from portions of root. In certain situations, mechanical or chemical control measures are the only ways to control the potentially serious weed.
Diospyros melanoxylon	The tree is usually kept reserved and is not felled except in clear-felling coupes, as in the coppice-with-reserves working cycle in India. The main source of production of bidi leaves is from the bushes arising from the root suckers; leaves of bigger trees are stiff and brittle and therefore not capable of producing trade leaves for wrapping bidis. The seedlings are normally planted at 2 m by 2 m. Where the objective of management is the production of leaves, heavy pruning is recommended as this promotes vegetative growth and the production of relatively large and thin leaves, although repeated pruning can cause stunted growth of trees. Plants up to 15 cm in girth are cut near the ground to encourage sprouting of coppice shoots, which gives best quality leaves after 40-50 days of operation. Coppicing experiments in India show that best quality of trade leaves are obtained by coppicing flush to the ground level twice, 2 weeks apart, then coppicing flush to the ground only once. The tree also pollards well, although the growth of the pollard shoots is slow. Pollarding is done to obtain a good flush of tender leaves, and plants over 15 cm girth are usually cut at 60-90 cm height. The quality of the leaves also depends on whether the frequency and intensity of pollarding impairs the vitality and growth of the trees. Management for small timber, poles or firewood requires a coppice rotation of about 30 years to give usable products. For ebony wood, a much longer rotation would be needed to give sufficient dimensions to the valuable heartwood.
Diospyros mespiliformis	Slashing and weeding should be practiced until the trees are well established. Protection from fires helps improve crop stocking in natural forests, and trees should be sheltered in cold areas. The tree can be coppiced.
Endospermum malaccense	Site preparation: The area should be clear-felled and burnt, which is usually carried out during the dry period. Once the area is prepared, transplanting can be conducted during the rainy season at the end of the year. Planting: Being a light demanding species, E. malaccense can be planted in open. The method of establishing is through clear-felling and burning area. This operation is usually carried out during the dry period. Once the area is prepared, transplanting can be done to take the advantage of rainy season at the end of the year. Husbandry: E. malaccense is a pioneer species with a fast growth, which makes it possible to compete with other species. To ensure better competition, closed planting such as 3 x 3 m is suitable eliminating weed problem but also enhancing self-pruning. It regenerates rapidly, is able to self prune and is suitable for coppicing. A mean annual increment of 2.5 cm y-1 in dbh can be attained at age of 13. First thinning of the crop can be carried out about 5 years after planting and the second thinning at 13 to 15 years. The estimated rotation age of is between 18 to 25 years.
Entada abyssinica	Coppicing is a suitable practice. The species prefers open areas, so slashing of herbaceous vegetation in its natural habitat might boost its growth and yield.
Enterolobium cyclocarpum	Spacing of 4 x 4 m with thinning on a rotation of 25-35 years is recommended. E. cyclocarpum is shade intolerant. The tree must receive adequate sunlight as a dominant or codominant from the sapling stage onwards. Careful weeding of the plantation is essential during the early years. Pruning can improve the length and form of the bole. It resprouts vigorously after coppicing or lopping. Little information is available, however, on its response to repeated cutting.
Erythrina abyssinica	Young trees should be protected from heavy frosts until they are well established. Growth is slow. Pollarding and coppicing are suitable for E. abyssinica. Trees should not be pruned until they are 1 year old. Frequent pruning will reduce the competitive effects of hedgerows and increase the ratio of leaves to stems but will also increase labour costs and reduce total tree biomass production. With its soft wood, E. abyssinica is somewhat easier to prune than other species used in alley farming. It may be advisable to grow the trees with shade-tolerant crops, rather than imposing a severe pruning regime to favour shade-intolerant crops. As a shade tree, it can be established rapidly by planting large stakes, 2.5 m long and 8-10 cm in diameter. Stakes this size can produce a canopy of 3-4 m diameter in 6 months.
Eucalyptus camaldulensis	Seedling growth may exceed 3 m per year for well-adapted provenances on favourable sites. Spacing varies with management system, from community planting around homes, villages and roads to closely spaced commercial plantations, and depends on the end products required. Application of 100 g of NP or NPK (3:2:1) fertilizer to each tree at planting to assist establishment and early growth is common. Poor competition ability with weeds and the development of an open crown necessitate frequent weeding, up to 3 times a year, until the canopy closes 3-5 years after planting. A thinning of less than 700 stems/ha at 5 years provides posts, poles, fuelwood and pulpwood, leaving the better trees for the production of other products, such as sawn timber after 10 years. Coppices readily. Crown die-back during the dry season as a result of boron deficiency is prevalent in parts of Africa, Asia and South America.
Eucalyptus deglupta	Growth is usually rapid, and subsequent management depends on the purpose for which the trees are being grown. Pulpwood production is the common object of management, and therefore short rotations with no thinning are the rule. For example, in the Philippines the spacing most commonly used is 4 x 4 m and the rotation 12 years with no thinning, and in Papua New Guinea the spacing varies from 3 x 3 m to 4 x 4 m, for a rotation of 7-10 years. Plantations grown for saw logs will require thinning. A new regime for saw log production has been introduced in Papua New Guinea of a 25-year rotation, with thinning at the ages 5, 10 and 15 years, the last of which reduces the stocking rate to 99 stems/ha. The annual volume increment in plantations is 15 cubic m/ha, but occasionally it is as much as 50 cubic m/ha. At the age of 25 years, the trees reach an average height of 42 m and an average bole diameter of 40 cm. Good weed control (usually a 1 m strip along each planting line) is essential, and weeding 4-5 times each year for 2 years may be necessary before site occupancy is achieved. E. deglupta does not coppice vigorously.
Eucalyptus globulus ssp. globulus	The species is easy to establish, is generally of good stem form, grows fast, closes canopy rapidly, coppices vigorously and is wind firm. Coppicing should be at a height of 10-20 cm above the ground; usually at least 3, and occasionally more coppice harvests are obtained. Growth and yield figures vary. In northwestern Spain, 1 fertilized plot is reported to produce 70 cubic m/ha per year. However, increments of 30 cubic m/ha per year are frequent, and of 20 cubic m/ha per year are average. The rotations used depend principally on the site and the desired product. E. globulus ssp. globulus is commonly grown on rather short rotations of 8-12 years or 10-15 years to produce pulpwood, fuelwood or posts. Undesirable shoots are cut back during the 1st 2 years after sprouting. Frosts are particularly damaging to seedlings and saplings of 1-2 years, but larger plants are moderately resistant to light frost.
Eucalyptus grandis	For pulpwood, fuelwood and timber for mining, a 6 to 10 year rotation is common. In most countries, no thinning is done on these short rotations. In Zambia, for industrial plantations, an 8-year rotation is used with thinning at the ages of 2 and 5 years. In the same country, a 4-year rotation without thinning is used for production of small wood for domestic purposes. Thinning should be done to 3 stems per stump. In Uganda, with initial spacing of 2.4 x 2.4 m to 3 x 3 m, a 7- to 8-year rotation is sufficient to produce trees of 15-20 cm diameter at breast height, the preferred size for tobacco curing. In India, a 9-year rotation is used with initial spacing of 3 x 3 m. For saw logs, a rotation of 30 years is recommended with thinning at ages 7, 11 and 15 years, leaving a final stocking of 250 stems/ha. The use of boron to reduce die-back and improve the growth rate is essential. For most types of products, 1 seedling rotation, followed by at least 2 coppice rotations, is common practice. Under natural conditions, E. grandis bears heavy seed crops every 2-3 years. A fully mature tree can produce 2 kg of seed annually.
Eucalyptus maculata	E. maculata is a fire-resistant species and although young seedlings are sensitive to fire, well-established seedlings of lignotuberous origin are resistant. The tree grows fast and in South Africa, an average of 2-2.5 m/year has been recorded in the first few years. The tree coppices well.
Eucalyptus nitens	E. nitens is an evergreen, fast-growing tree with very good vigour and volume growth. The lower branches of trees on young plantations tend to stand out at right angles to the trunk and do not shed as well as those of most Eucalyptus species. E. nitens can be coppiced. It is very sensitive to fire and is killed even by light wild fire. But if sufficient seed is available, the regeneration is prolific, and regrowth develops rapidly on the resulting ash beds. It is estimated that E. globulus and E. nitens can grow at 40 cubic m/ha per year. Rotations of 8-10 years are envisaged for pulpwood production, and up to 25 years for timber production.
Eucalyptus robusta	Vegetative cover must be removed before seedlings are planted out. Planted seedlings are susceptible to competition and shading, and generally require 2 weedings in the first 6 months. The species coppices well up to the age of 25 years. The length of rotation is largely determined by the product desired. For fuelwood, the tree is sometimes grown in plantations on a 4-5 year rotation. For pulpwood an 8-10 year rotation is appropriate, and saw logs can be produced in plantations or natural stands using 30-60 year rotations. Most E. robusta plantations are regenerated from coppice shoots. The tree is exceedingly tolerant to prolonged flooding, so it is extensively planted in swampy areas and along rivers.
Eucalyptus saligna	E. saligna has proved to be highly suited for short-rotation plantations in tropical montane regions. This fast-growing, light-demanding tree is highly sensitive to competition from weeds during the 1st 2 years, and therefore measures to control emerging weed growth must be carried out several times. The rapid early growth allows E. saligna to dominate competing vegetation. Stands grown for timber are thinned to about 50% of the original stem density when trees are 5-8 years old. Additional thinning is carried out every 8-10 years thereafter. At a rotation of about 35 years, the final thinning, which should be done when the trees reach marketable age, should leave approximately 70-120 stems/ha. Rotations of 6-10 years are used for producing fuelwood and pulpwood. E. saligna is a choice species for short coppice rotation. It can be successfully irrigated.
Eucalyptus tereticornis	The species coppices vigorously: a 99% rate has been reported from Congo. Rotation varies with site quality and the objects of management. In Congo, for example, the rotation is 5-7 years, and in Argentina it is 9-12 years with a single thinning at about 7-8 years.
Eucalyptus urophylla	Spacing varies with purpose of the plantation. For pulpwood, 3 x 2 m is commonly used, and for fuelwood or poles spacing may be closer. It is essential to keep the field free of weeds until the trees are 6 months old. Thinning is done every 2 years from the age of 3 years onwards. E. urophylla has good coppicing ability and can be expected to produce at least 3 coppice rotations after the initial seedling rotation.
Euphorbia tirucalli	It coppices well at 20-30 cm height. Under semi arid conditions the regrowth of the finger euphorbia is excellent. A density of 10 000-20 000 plants is normal when grown as a fuel crop. When planted at a spacing of 1m x 1m it produced 120 t/ha fresh material and 14 t/ha dry matter after 1 year, yielding 40-88 kg of crude oil, 135-213 kg of sugar and 1.8 t of bagasse.
Fagraea racemosa	Husbandry: Double stems should be removed. Thinning in cycles of 5 years up to the age of 30 years is appropriate for plantations; thereafter every 10 years. The lower branches are very persistent and pruning these promotes height growth. F. racemosa reproduce easily by means of root suckers and coppice freely; locally, trees may be often pollarded for poles.
Flacourtia indica	F. indica is a slow-growing tree. In Tamil Nadu, India, coppice shoots reached 3.4 m in height and 9.4 cm in girth in 15 years, corresponding to a mean annual increment of only 0.63 cm. It coppices very well. Seedlings need weeding until they are well developed.
Flemingia macrophylla	Good weed control is required during the 1st 6 months of sowing since the plants are relatively slow to establish; once established, they require little attention. Mulching at a rate of 3 t/ha effectively controls the germination of weed seeds for about 3 months. Under tropical, humid, lowland conditions in Cote d’Ivoire, with 10 000 plants/ha and 9 regrowth cycles of 3 months each, an average annual production of 12 t/ha of leaf dry matter has been achieved, although typical yields in Southeast Asia may be closer to 8 t/ha. Plants can be cut more frequently than every 3 months, but preferably not at intervals of less than 40 days. With an excellent coppicing capacity, the shrub will survive under this cutting regime for many years.
Gevuina avellana	The tree requires protection from strong winds due to the weight of foliage. G. avellana shows a 2-year rhythm in seed production which is concentrated in summer and autumn. Spacing of 2-4 m x 2-4 m has been used in trials in Chile. The tree does better on sunny slopes, it coppices well.
Gleditsia triacanthos	Male trees (about 10%) must be included in or adjacent to fodder orchards to ensure pollination of female trees. When established in working pastures, young trees need protection with plastic tree shelters or electric fencing. Appropriately managed, average annual pod production of 40 kg/tree appears feasible. Planting 75 trees/ha (excluding male trees) would yield 3000 kg/ha, sufficient to provide 100 sheep a 1.5-kg ration of pods for 20 days. The tree coppices vigorously when cut. Typical of many caesalpinioid genera, G. triacanthos does not nodulate and lacks the ability for symbiotic fixation of atmospheric nitrogen.
Gliricidia sepium	Pruning and pollarding are the main management activities. Pruning at 0.3-1.5 m will stimulate leaf production. Pollarding at 2 m or above is recommended for optimal wood biomass production. Coppicing is used where the primary objective is fuelwood production. G. sepium has been shown to tolerate lopping and browsing.
Gmelina arborea	G. arborea has suitable characteristics for agroforestry, with fast growth, ease of establishment, and relative freedom from pests outside its natural range (it can be browsed repeatedly without damage). It is an especially promising fuelwood species because it can be established easily, regenerates well from both sprouts and seeds, and is fast growing. Trees coppice well with vigorous shoot growth. Although able to compete with weeds more successfully than many other species, it responds positively to weeding and also benefits from irrigation.
Grevillea robusta	Moderate to fast growing. When climate and soil are suitable and weed competition is not severe, annual height and diameter increments of at least 2 m and 2 cm, respectively, are usually achieved for the 1st few years in row planting on farms. Annual height increments of 3 m have been observed at the most favourable sites. G. robusta regrows well after complete defoliation following pruning and pollarding, which can be carried out repeatedly to yield wood and to regulate shading and competition with adjacent crops. It is characterized by root suckering, hence it is a good candidate for management under coppice rotation; it responds well to pollarding, lopping and pruning. A plant density of 800-1200 trees/ha is recommended for plantations. Some control of competing vegetation is required for the 1st 1-2 years after planting. Seedlings are normally planted at a spacing of 2.5-3 x 3-4 m. The relatively open canopy of G. robusta makes it less suitable for areas with erosional hazard. It also easily regenerates naturally, especially in agricultural fields. For firewood production, rotations of 10-20 years are applied and annual volume increments of 5-15 cubic m/ha may be expected. A growth reduction after 20 years is reported. The species is known to produce substances toxic to its own seedlings.
Grewia bicolor	Although slow growing, natural stands could be utilized commercially, provided harvesting is carefully controlled and stands are not overexploited. Coppicing is practised.
Grewia optiva	Planting is done in July in pits dug in summer or at the beginning of the rainy season. Spacing is at 3 x 3 m for block planting and 4-5 m for single row planting along the fields. Plantation area should be protected against browsing, grazing and fire. The tree requires complete overhead light for optimum growth. Severe frost causes die back in seedlings. The tree pollards and coppices well, whippy branches are lopped yearly for fodder and fibre.
Hardwickia binata	The tree thrives in a dry climate and is capable of establishing itself and growing on dry shallow soil and rocky ground where most other species would succumb. This is due partly to the early development of the taproot and the ability to penetrate hard soil and fissures in solid rock (the stem usually dying back annually during development of the taproot) and partly to its ability to withstand mutilation. Young trees can withstand some shade and may even require artificial shading. Later they are moderately light demanding. In heavily grazed areas the plant assumes a characteristic bushy form. The tree pollards well even up to a comparatively advanced age, and old pollards when repollarded almost invariably produce abundant new shoots. However, the tree coppices poorly. Old trees, which send out vigorous pollard shoots if cut 1 or 2 m above the ground, produce no coppice shoots if cut flush with the ground; old pollards when felled at ground level never coppice.
Harungana madagascariensis	H. madagascariensis coppices easily and is a fast growing species which requires thinning after planting, for adequate growth.
Hymenaea courbaril	H. courbaril seedlings grow at an angle with a drooping leader, a habit that may persist for 2 or 3 years. Open planting sites and good weed control until the seedlings reach about 2 m is important for best planting stock. Rate of growth is steady, and yields are large with some trees capable of producing several thousand pods a year. Considering the tree is a hardwood, seedling growth is rapid and under 50% shade reaches a height of about 78 days after germination. Trees may reach a height of 8 m in 5 years and 18.5 m in 16 years. The species is intolerant to shade when mature. Planting in the open, for shade and ornamental purposes, produces attractive and spreading trees more rapidly. H. courbaril coppices well and thus maintains itself in frequently cut-over areas; however stumps of large trees do not coppice.
Hyphaene thebaica	Growth is known to be relatively slow, and after germination a single strip-shaped leaf is produced, with fan-shaped leaves being produced at ground level 2-3 years after germination. At this stage, a new leaf is produced every 7 days and the stem is produced after 18-20 years. This fire-resistant species is managed by coppicing and lopping. Mature trees of 6-8 years produce 50 kg of fruit/year. Palm trees that are tapped for production of wine need to be protected from browsing camels.
Inga vera	A fast-growing species, the trunk often grows more than 2.5 cm in diameter in a year. Trees coppice well. On lower slopes and along streams, this tree grows very rapidly, producing sufficient shade for coffee within 3 years.
Jacaranda mimosifolia	The plants need weeding for about 2 years after transplanting. Young trees should be staked until well rooted. They require regular watering. Very fast growing on good sites; up to 3 m/yr in height in the first 2 years and over 1 m/yr over the first 9 years. Established plants respond well to coppicing. If used as an ornamental roadside tree, wide spacing (over 5 m) is advisable. It is a light demander, and to flower prolifically it needs to be grown in the open.
Lagerstroemia speciosa	In trials in Java, 15-year-old trees attained a mean annual increment of 0.9-1.1 cm in diameter and 0.7-0.9 m in height. In trials at 3 m x 1 m on fertile soil in Java the canopy closed after 6 years and the first thinning was necessary after 8 years. Due to poor natural pruning a spacing of 2.5 m x 1 m is recommended. At 15.5 years the clear bole yield in the trial was 47-55 m cu/ha. It has been proposed to girdle trees 2 years before harvest to allow for easier seasoning. The tree coppices freely and is fairly resistant to fire.
Leucaena collinsii	The tree’s coppice resprouts are numerous and are lopped for fodder; ssp. zacapana shows very good coppicing ability and is managed as a bush fallow on a 4-year coppice rotation.
Leucaena diversifolia	The aggressive nature and profuse growth of L. diversifolia occasionally make it a weed; seedlings can be controlled effectively by spraying them with diesel oil at the 3-5 leaf stage. Established trees can be controlled by impregnating freshly cut stumps of a basal diameter of 1-20 cm with diesel oil. The treatment should be repeated on coppiced stumps. Delaying application until 1 day after cutting reduces its efficacy.
Leucaena leucocephala	L. leucocephala is a vigorous coppicer and responds well to pollarding and pruning. Coppiced stems sprout 5-15 branches, depending on the diameter of the cut surface, and 1-4 stems dominate after a year of regrowth. Wood yields from L. leucocephala over short (3-5 year) rotations compare favourably with other species, ranging from 3-4 m in height/year and 10-60 cubic m/ha a year. On less favourable sites, as in cooler tropical highland areas, on acid soils, or under high psyllid pressure, yields have often been disappointing, and under such conditions other species of Leucaena or other genera generally outperform L. leucocephala. High plant densities are recommended for solid fodder. Fodder yields range from 40 to 80 t/ha when moisture is not limiting.
Leucaena pallida	The tree coppices well producing few seeds. Silvicultural practice should include dense planting (10 000 stems/ha) with thinning for fuelwood at one and three years, and harvest after 6-8 years. Trees are lopped annually during pod harvesting.
Leucaena trichandra	The tree resprouts readily, even from large stumps after cutting and is amenable to regular lopping.
Liquidambar styraciflua	L. styraciflua has been managed extensively both in natural stands and in plantations in the USA, so a wealth of information is available on its silviculture. Field establishment is straightforward, benefiting from effective weed control. Planting of nursery-grown mycorrhizal sweet gum seedlings in sites may improve stand establishment and permit better utilization of fertilizers and other soil resources. The species coppices readily.
Litsea monopetala	L. monopetala coppice well when lopped.
Madhuca latifolia	Mahua can be planted at a spacing of 3-8 m x 3-8 m and worked on 25-30 year coppice cycle to produce a mean annual increment of 3-5 cu. m/ha. Fire tracing and fencing of plantations are essential in the early stages along with clean weeding and soil working around seedlings. The tree is a light demander, drought resistant and frost hardy. It coppices well if felled in the hot season.
Mallotus philippensis	The tree is light-demanding and readily colonizes exposed, fertile soil. It will tolerate light shade when young, but full overhead light is necessary for full vigour. The species coppices well. Loosening of soil and regular weeding are necessary for at least 2 years after sowing.
Mammea americana	Spacing of 10 m is recommended if fruit is going to be cultivated, closer spacing is desirable for wood production. Mamey coppices well and generally receives little or no cultural attention, apart from protection from cold during the first few winters in other than strictly tropical climates. It seems remarkably resistant to pests and diseases.
Melaleuca quinquenervia	Growth is relatively fast on sites where water is abundant and soils are deep but is not impressive under marginal conditions. The species can successfully compete with weeds, but early weed control will improve growth rates. M. quinquenervia has the ability to coppice readily, but root suckers are not commonly produced.
Melia azedarach	Under optimal conditions, M. azedarach grows fast. It is generally deciduous, but some forms in the humid tropics (e.g. in Malaysia and Tonga) are evergreen. Does not coppice well from large stumps, but excellent coppice is obtained from trees up to a girth of 0.9 m. The tree resprouts after cutting and regrows after pollarding, making it suitable for pole production.
Michelia champaca	Trees propagated from seed take 8-10 years to flower whereas asexually propagated trees flower in 2-3 years. In Java the mean annual increment of 10-27-year-old trees is 1-1.8 m in height and 1.5-2 cm diameter, annual increment of 20-25 cu m/ha during the 1st 10 years are possible. It is planted at 3 m x 2.5-3 m but the open canopy makes weed control necessary. A rotation of 50 years is recommended to produce sawn timber. The tree is a light demander and is susceptible to fire; it coppices well.
Milicia excelsa	Compared with other hardwoods, M. excelsa is a fast-growing species and coppices readily. Young trees should be protected from browsing. Trees are ready for harvesting at about 50 years of age.
Millettia dura	M. dura is a fairly fast growing tree. Can be managed by lopping, coppicing and pollarding.
Moringa oleifera	Moringa is an extremely fast-growing tree, and within 1-3 months trees reach 2.5 m. Constant pruning of up to 1.5 m/year is suggested to obtain a thick-limbed and multibranched shrub. Trees are commonly grown for their leaves, and topping-out is useful to keep an abundant supply of leaves, pods and flowers within easy reach. M. oleifera responds well to mulch, water and fertilizer. Growth is stunted in areas with a high water table. It coppices and pollards well.
Morus alba	To minimize competition, the plants must occasionally be weeded. Once in several years, the plant should be pruned down to regularize its shape and allow the growth of new shoots. The form depends on the height of the plant and the height at which the old branches are cut. M. alba requires protection against fire and browsing, to which it is susceptible. Plantations are managed by coppicing; in India, 20-year-old coppice shoots of M. alba showed a mean annual diameter increment of 1.5 cm and a mean annual height increment of 1 m. Early growth was very fast: 4.5 m in the 1st 2 years.
Nauclea diderrichii	The tree has been grown in taungya plantations at various spacings. The initial recommended planting density is 1100 stems/ha. The young saplings are often multistemmed, and the secondary stems must be eliminated in the early years by pruning. The plant coppices readily. The rotation cycle ranges from 30-40 years for an exploitable diameter of 50 cm.
Ocotea usambarensis	O. usambarensis is fast-growing and responds well to coppicing.
Ougeinia dalbergioides	Young trees and seedlings need a moderate amount of shade. However, once established O. dalbergioides requires full sunlight for its best development. Although young trees are drought and frost sensitive, mature trees are hardy. A tree spacing of 3 x 6 m is recommended for timber production. Mean annual growth increment averages between 3-20 mm in DBH. Trials indicate that keeping seedlings free of heavy weed competition improves growth and survival and such trees attain heights of 4-5 m and DBH of 10.5 cm in about 6 years. Conversely, heavy weed competition can kill seedlings. Sandan coppices well and produces abundant root-suckers. Fast-growing coppice and root-suckers attain 7-10 m in height and 12-17 cm in DBH after 20 years. Coppice and root-suckers can be managed for timber production. In its native range, forests are commonly managed simultaneously for sandan and teak production. The exploitable diameter for O. dalbergioides timber is generally 30 cm. Timber exploitation has degraded the natural stands of this species. To reverse this condition, improved natural forest management and the establishment of large scale tree plantations are necessary.
Paraserianthes falcataria	P. falcataria grows so fast that it is sometimes called the ‘miracle tree’. It is even mentioned in the Guinness Book of Records as the world’s fastest growing tree. On good sites it can attain a height of 7 m in just over a year. Trees reach a mean height of 25.5 m and a bole diameter of 17 cm after 6 years, 32.5 m high and 40.5 cm diameter after 9 years, 38 m high and 54 cm diameter after 12 years, and 39 m high and 63.5 cm diameter after 15 years. P. falcataria coppices although coppicing vigour is highly variable. It has been found that growth at 2 x 2 m spacing is significantly faster than at 1 x 1 m. If sawn timber is desired, stands can be thinned to 6 x 6 m at 6-8 years and harvested at 15 years. P. falcataria is commonly used in agroforestry systems, usually in a cutting cycle of 10-15 years, in combination with annual crops in the 1st year and grazing animals in subsequent years. When planted, it can grow on comparatively poor sites and survive without fertilizer. However, it does not thrive in poorly drained, flooded or waterlogged soils. Growth of young trees in a phosphorous-deficient soil is promoted by inoculation with mycorrhizal fungi Gigaspora margarita and Glomus fasciculatum in combination with Rhizobium. Nitrogen-fixing nodules containing leghaemoglobin are found on roots. P. falcataria plantations should be kept weed free during the 1st few years.
Parinari curatellifolia	Transplanted into the field or garden after 2 years; care needs to be taken when transferring the seedlings because the taproot damages easily; young plants can be planted in groups of 10 or more, as they occur in nature, and must be watered until they are established; plants grow quite fast; coppice shoots are produced on felled trees. P. curatellifolia does not have an invasive root system, and root suckers are produced after root wounding.
Pausinystalia johimbe	A fast growing tree but never reaches great diameter, with the maximum being around 50 cm dbh. The species coppices well, producing strong, highly phototrophic shoots, and would be an ideal candidate for a clonal propagation programme once desirable phenotypes have been identified. The bark is used to extract yohimbine; the main stem gives the best material but is not rich in alkaloids until the tree is 15-20 years of age when it can contain 2-15%. Bark exploitation is a seasonal activity as the yohimbine levels highest during the rainy season.
Piliostigma thonningii	Young individuals are susceptible to annual fires. The fire resistance strategy of P. thonningii is by quick regrowth of aboveground structures. Management practices recommended for this species include lopping, pollarding, trimming and coppicing.
Pongamia pinnata	Seedling survival and growth benefit from annual weed control for the first 3 years after transplanting. Growth of young trees is fairly slow; a growth of 1.3 m in height and 0.4 cm in diameter in 13 months was recorded in India. Trees coppice well and can also be pollarded. When planted as a shade or ornamental tree, pruning may be necessary to obtain a trunk of appropriate height. The spacing adopted in avenue planting is about 8 m between plants. In block plantings, the spacing can range from 2 x 2 m to 5 x 5 m. The lateral spread of roots on this species, about 9 m in 18 years, is greater than most other species; moreover it produces root suckers profusely. Because of these characteristics, pongam is unsuitable for agroforestry and has the potential to become a weed if not managed carefully. Individual trees yield 9-90 kg of pods annually, while mature trees yield 8-24 kg of seeds annually.
Populus ciliata	P. ciliata is a light demander, pollards vigorously, has poor coppicing power except in the case of young trees, and produces root suckers abundantly. The trees growing in the open develop broad, long crowns and exhibit poor self-pruning. It is susceptible to fire especially seedling and saplings regeneration which are killed even by light fire; mature trees survive light ground fire but crown fire kills them. When the trees are managed for fodder, they are closely spaced and managed under an intensive coppice system. All-purpose management system involves a thinning in the 7th or 8th year, removing 50% of the tree for pulp production. Clear felling is done at 10-15 years. Regeneration of a new crop is through replanting. Besides depth, water-holding capacity is an important factor determining the establishment and growth of P. ciliata.
Populus euphratica	Planting is spaced at 2 x 3 m, although wider spacing is sometimes used to provide space for sowing alfalfa for improving soil and to provide fodder. The tree coppices well, and the few remnants of natural forests still being exploited for firewood are managed by coppice on short rotations of 1 or 2 years. Planted woodlots are adapted for treatment under coppice or coppice-with-standards, reproduction being obtained from roots or root suckers. The tree grows fast, with annual girth increments of 4-5.3 cm.
Prosopis africana	Like several other arid-zone species, P. africana produces a deep taproot with few lateral shoots; therefore, pruning seedlings in the pots is necessary. Can be grown as a plantation tree but should be pruned while young to get a clean bole. It resprouts vigorously after coppicing.
Prosopis alba	Traditionally, management has been done using range management guidelines, calling for total elimination of the stand, rather than silvicultural techniques. In a plantation management system where management is for fuelwood, an initial spacing of 3 x 3 m is employed. For pod production, a rotation spacing of 5 x 7.5 m has been used.
Prosopis cineraria	Initial spacing of 2 x 2 m is recommended. Should be weeded until well established. Standing crops yield 7-70 cu m fuel/ha, averaging 21 cu m stacked. Annual yields of stacked firewood approach 3 cu m/ha. The heartwood is very hard and heavy (769-945 kg cu m). Tree coppices readily. In India, a special type of lopping which inflicts minimum damage is used on the trees. The method, locally known as "changni", is acquired through traditional wisdom in farm families. It is a common belief that such lopped trees bear lush green leafy fodder in the subsequent year.
Prosopis glandulosa	Although P. glandulosa is very drought tolerant, best growth is achieved in areas where the root system can reach the groundwater. In areas with low rainfall, especially in fast-draining soils, irrigation may be required during establishment. The tree coppices well. Annual production of wood on dry, low-quality sites may be less than 1 t/ha, but with sufficient water (even though slightly saline) trees can grow rapidly and yield over 5 t/ha/yr. Fencing or seedling protectors will usually be needed to protect young transplanted P. glandulosa seedlings from rabbits or other browsing and grazing animals.
Prosopis juliflora	The tree normally grows to a height of about 10 m, but under favourable conditions it may reach 20 m. Spacing depends on the use intended for the trees. In South America when grown for fuelwood, a spacing of 2 x 2 m or wider is used. In rangeland in association with grasses and other crops, the spacing may be up to 10 x 10-15 m. When the emphasis is on pod production, the spacing used is usually 5 x 5-10 m. Young plants benefit from weeding around the stem and need protection from grazing animals. Thinning and pruning are needed to prevent P. juliflora from becoming a weed and to keep the plantation accessible. P. juliflora coppices readily. Because of its aggressive nature, it is considered a noxious weed in more humid areas, e.g. the southern USA.
Prosopis tamarugo	Plantation spacings in the Tamarugal Pampa (Chile) are at 10 x 10 m and 15 x 15 m, taking into consideration the tree's growth and its function as fodder. Two types of pruning are normally employed, the long pruning, to increase fruit yield and, secondarily, to increase foliage thickness. The other pruning method, short pruning is aimed at adding vigour to the tree. This enables the formation of great foliar mass and increase in fruit production. The tree coppices readily.
Psidium guajava	For intensively managed orchards in Thailand trees are spaced only 4-6 m apart but seedlings for fruit processing may be spaced up to 10 x 8 m apart. Irrigation during the dry season and frequent light pruning to promote the emergence of flowering shoots are employed for continuity of production throughout the year. When the crop is cycled most fertilizer is applied as a basal dressing at the end of the harvest, if necessary supplemented by a top dressing; if trees are cropped continuously, fertilizers are applied in several small doses. Growth rate is excellent and the plants coppice readily. Branching is extensive and pruning is necessary to form good orchard trees. Firewood cuttings cause excessive propagation by formulation of sprouts and suckers. Best time of day to harvest is early morning because by noon fruit is warmer and deteriorates more rapidly. During harvesting, great care is necessary to avoid fruit damage, as when collected almost ripe, they will only store for about 2-3 days at room temperature. Fruit for industrial purposes do not need such care but greater speed is still essential. Average yields are between 30-40 kg/plant in 5 year-old plants and will reach a maximum production of 50-70 kg at about 7 years if well managed.
Pterocarpus rotundifolius	P. rotundifolius grows relatively fast, up to 1 m/year. Young plants should be protected against cold winds for the first two years and from browsing animals, overgrazing causes coppicing.
Pterocarpus santalinoides	Pollarding, coppicing and lopping are recommended management practices for P. santalinoides.
Punica granatum	Generally, P. granatum is slow growing. Lopping, pruning and coppicing are recommended management practices. Thinning should be done occasionally to ensure good aeration and interception of sunlight. Periodical spraying with 2 g mancozeb/litre of water is enough. Fruit cracking damage due to severe drought and boron deficiency is a serious problem tackled by irrigation and spraying 0.25% Boron solution. Plants should be protected from browsers. The fruit borer is controlled by removal of affected fruits and use of insecticides. Generally most pests are managed by hygienic orchard management and insecticides. Root pruning limits fruiting. When harvested unripe fruits may be stored for 5-6 months.
Quercus floribunda	Q. floribunda tolerates shade, coppices well, grows without a massive root system and, therefore, is not wind firm. Under natural conditions seed germinates well soon after falling during and after the summer rains from August to October. It is planted at a spacing of 1.5 x 1.5 m for production of clean stems, as the tree tends to develop strong branches. Seedlings are drought sensitive and growth is moderately fast. A number of insect and fungal pests attack this species. In Jaunsar in India plantations (direct sown) averaged 4.3 m in height after 20 years, which is slow. It tolerates side shade when young, but growth of older trees is better in the open. Best growth is on well-drained clay loam, and on shallow gravelly soils growth becomes stunted. The tree is frost-hardy, but early frosts sometimes kill the seedlings. It does not tolerate drought. It coppices well, until the tree is about 10 cm in diameter; trees larger than this coppice poorly in many localities.
Quercus glauca	Q. glauca is propagated either by direct sowing or by planting nursery-raised seedlings. The seedlings are tolerant to shade, but older trees benefit from full light; seedlings are sensitive to frost and must be protected during the winter, but older trees are more frost-resistant. The tree prefers moist situations, such as north aspects and the sides of the ravines, and grows well on deep clay loams. It should not be planted on dry sites. The seedlings are liable to be browsed. Natural stands reach a height of 9.8-11.2 m and 9.8-12.5 cm d.b.h. after 25 years, with a standing volume of 80-92 cubic m per ha. . Managed plantations grow faster and can attain 8 m and 7.5 cm d.b.h. after 14 years. The tree coppices freely. Bare-root planting has given very poor results.
Quercus semecarpifolia	This oak can be raised either by direct sowing or by planting out nursery raised seedlings. Slow growth, heavy grazing and dense growth of weeds hamper its establishment. For the establishment of natural reproduction, abundant overhead light is essential and often, dense thickets of young oak come up near the isolated mother trees or on the edge of stands, where the canopy is opened out. For raising nursery seedlings, sowing is done in July, in lines 20cm apart and about 2cm deep. Seed from fresh collection should only be used. The nursery is irrigated and weeded regularly. During the following summer, the seedlings are spaced about 10 cm in lines. 2 year-old seedlings are planted out with balls of earth in July-August in 30 cm³ pits. Spacing for the plantation may be 2.5m x 2.5m. Winter planting is not successful. Bagged plants can also be used. This oak is a light-demander and fails to establish under shade. It coppices and pollards fairly well, the latter in particular are liable to snow-break. Out of the large number of coppice shoots, a few eventually survive and the remainder are suppressed. The growth of coppice-shoots is slow. Young pole and tree may also suffer from load of snow and get uprooted. Young growth is susceptible to fire also.
Rhododendron arboreum	It coppices well but is a slow growing tree.
Ricinodendron heudelotii	Stand establishment is mainly through direct sowing and planting stock. The species is suited for coppicing and pollarding.
Robinia pseudoacacia	Since its Rhizobium is very specific and growth can be completely stunted by the absence of nodulation, a new introduction of R. pseudoacacia must be accompanied by Rhizobia. It coppices readily and may even be lopped annually.
Saba comorensis	The vine coppices on cutting the main stem.
Salvadora oleoides	S. oleoides coppices fairly well. A dense, almost impenetrable growth is formed by a parent stem surrounded by a ring of root suckers.
Salvadora persica	For high seed settings and seed oil content, harvesting is recommended 3 months after seed setting. This may be due to the utilization of food reserve in the cotyledons for the development of fruit pulp, and can be seen as the pulp content of fruit increases. Coppicing is advantageous for the tree’s use as a fuel, and the branches are repeatedly cut to produce short stems that are harvested for toothbrushes. S. persica is grown in plantations or hedges. It is generally a slow-growing tree.
Santalum album	The yield of the heartwood varies according to age and locality. As a rule of thumb, each tree adds 1 kg of heartwood to its weight each year after the age of 15 years. On deep rich soils in moist areas, trees grow luxuriantly but the heartwood formation is slow and the oil content is low, while the slower-growing trees on difficult sites at elevations between 600-900 m and in rainfall zones of 500-1 000 mm develop maximum heartwood with high oil content. Girth increments for S. album in India are 1-1.3 cm/year in natural stands and up to 5 cm annually in cultivated areas. Between-tree variation in heartwood content and oil yields is high, indicating considerable scope for selection and breeding. Seedlings require protection from wild animals and cattle; nurse bushes provide such protection, and also protect them from excessive heat of the sun, which can kill the tender seedlings in the hot summer months. It is desirable not to clean-weed all round the sandal seedlings, as the roots form haustorial connections with adjoining weed growth. Spacing adopted for raising pure plantations is 3 x 3 - 5 x 5 m. Plantations should strictly be protected from fire. Trees attain exploitable stage (over 15 cm diameter at breast height) in about 30 years, yielding about 50 kg of heartwood, and attain 25 cm dbh in 40 years; such a well-grown tree, including the roots, can yield over 250 kg of scented heartwood. Young sandal trees coppice well. Whole tree harvesting is employed, and both living and dead trees are utilized.
Sapium ellipticum	Trees respond well to coppicing and pollarding.
Sarcocephalus latifolius	The tree’s form factor can be checked by coppicing. The tree is light demanding and should not be planted in extreme shade conditions.
Schima wallichii	Survival of planted out seedlings is almost 100%. In peninsular Malaysia, they are planted out at a spacing of 1.8 x 1.2 m or 3.6 x 1.8 m; resulting in almost double diameter increments for the wider spacing. Early growth is comparatively slow, accelerating later. S. wallichii coppices easily; it is fairly resistant to fire from the age of 5 years, when it can reproduce by coppice shoots.
Schinus molle	Reaches maturity in less than 20 years. Has a low-branching habit, and pruning of lower branches is recommended when the tree is young if clearance beneath is desired and to reduce the chances of the tree being blown over. Coppicing, pollarding and lopping also are viable methods of managing the tree. Planting the trees away from buildings will avoid possible damage from the fall of heavy branches as trees age.
Sclerocarya birrea ssp. caffra	Truncheons 100-150 mm in diameter and 2 m long can be planted. One of the fastest growing trees in South Africa with a growth rate of up to 1.5 m/year. Coppicing is a suitable practice.
Senna atomaria	Trials in Somalia report satisfactory plantation establishment of S. atomaria without irrigation. Good growth rates (sufficient for fuelwood production) were found on sandy rainfed sites with S. atomaria. Pollarding and coppicing seem not to adversely affect this plant.
Senna singueana	S. singueana can be coppiced. The tree is often browsed by cattle and wild animals and should be protected. It is also susceptible to fire.
Senna spectabilis	S. spectabilis is fast growing on good sites and slow growing in dry sites. It has good coppicing ability and 50-year-old trees still coppice. As compared to S. siamea, it is easy to raise and less susceptible to pests and diseases.
Sesbania macrantha	Their early rapid growth helps sesbanias overcome weed competition better than most multipurpose tree species, reducing the amount of weeding required during establishment. When coppicing, lower cutting heights produce higher foliage. S. macrantha reaches maturity after 12 months, with a mean height of 3.98 m.
Sesbania sesban	One of the major advantages of sesbania over other forage trees and shrubs is its rapid early growth rate, which can be exploited by intercropping it with other slower establishing species for earlier yields. In India, it has been reported to attain a height of 4-5 m in 6 months. S. sesban thrives under repeated cuttings and coppices readily, with many branches arising from the main stem below cutting height. Cutting frequencies are generally 3-4 cuts/annum, but up to 8 cuts are made in some areas. Yields have ranged from 4 to 12 t/ha dry matter per year, depending on location. Cutting height can also influence yield, with cutting heights of 50-76 cm favouring plant survival and productivity. The rhizobium requirements of S. sesban vary. There is a host-strain interaction, and different accessions of S. sesban require different strains of bacteria.
Shorea robusta	Young plants grow quickly, attaining top heights of up to 6 m after 6 years. The 1st thinning is usually performed after 5 years, and thereafter the trees are thinned every 5-10 years. Rotations of 30-40 years are used when coppice regeneration is practised, and 80-160 years for high forest regeneration. A species that requires a lot of light, S. robusta coppices well. Both coppice regeneration and planting of seedlings are used in plantation systems. It is also ideally used for growing under taungya systems.
Simaruba glauca	If the objective of managing the trees is seed production, male plants should be eliminated and replaced with bisexual ones. For saw log production, pruning lateral branches is essential to obtain boles clear of branches. Pruning also allows flexibility in growing the tree as part of the upperstorey of a perennial garden or in pure, dense stands of a woodlot. At least 2 branch storeys or whorls must be left when pruning to avoid impairing growth rates. Plantations have been reported to resist storms and drought and in India are favoured over cashew (Anacardium occidentale) for such reasons. The species coppices, though not vigorously. The bitter leaves are avoided by livestock, an advantage for seedlings that develop slowly on tough sites. Height growth has never been observed to exceed 2 m/year. The fastest growth measured in Haiti was 1.8 m/year, with the average close to 1 m/year.
Spathodea campanulata	S. campanulata will coppice up to at least pole size.
Sterculia urens	S. urens is a strong light-demander but seedlings and saplings tolerate shading and are prone to fire damage. The tree does not stand competition and should be protected from browsing animals. It coppices when young.
Strychnos cocculoides	The species is semi-cultivated; raised in the nursery and planted on a cleared site. Saplings need to be protected from fire; weeds, especially climbers, need to be cleared until the trees are established. The tree coppices well.
Strychnos henningsii	Coppices well; normally managed through coppice.
Strychnos innocua	Protection of the natural habitat from forest fires helps in promoting natural regeneration. Seedlings should be planted where there has been partial clearing of herbaceous vegetation, and management practices carried out include pruning, lopping and pollarding.
Strychnos spinosa	S. spinosa roots are pruned to produce root suckers.
Syzygium cuminii	Trees should be spaced between 12 and 14 m if planted as ornamentals and 6 m apart if for a windbreak. S. cuminii is a fast-growing tree, and seedlings may reach a height of 4 m in only 2 years. Trees may become serious pests in pastures. The tree coppices remarkably well; vigorous shoots are produced in large numbers from small and large stumps alike. Coppice stands along streams have been reported that grew to 4.6 m in 4 years; more than 30 shoots were produced on 1 stump, half of which were dominant. The plants are also vigorous after pruning, and weeding has a marked effect on the growth and vigour of seedlings. S. cuminii tolerates shade, especially in the younger stages when dense masses of young plants can be found coming up under moderate shade in forests. It is susceptible to browsing damage. Chemical control of pests is recommended to control caterpillars.
Syzygium guineense	S. guineense is planted on cleared sites, tolerates pollarding and is able to coppice. The species is sensitive to crown competition and is a strong light demander, thus it could be necessary to refine the crop in natural forests to distribute growth potential to trees.
Tabebuia donnell-smithii	Fairly wide spacing (9 x 4.5 m) is required due to a full-light requirement and rapid growth. Young trees coppice until they reach pole size. A saw log rotation of 30 years has been suggested. Pruning is recommended to attain straight form. Weeding is recommended for the first 2 years.
Tamarindus indica	Growth is generally slow; seedling height increasing by about 60 cm annually. The juvenile phase lasts up to 4-5 years, or longer. Young trees are pruned to allow 3-5 well-spaced branches to develop into the main scaffold structure of the tree. After this, only maintenance pruning is required to remove dead or damaged wood. Trees generally require minimal care, but in orchards in Thailand’s central delta, intensive cropping is practised. This is possible because grafted trees come to bear within 3-4 years. Sweet cultivars are planted and good early crops limit extensive growth; presumably the high water table, which prevents deep rooting, also helps to dwarf the trees. Size-control measures include close spacing (about 500 trees/ha) and pruning to rejuvenate the fruiting wood. The trees also respond to coppicing and pollarding. When establishing a pure plantation, spacing should be at least 13 x 13 m. Distance can be reduced with vegetatively propagated plants, as they do not attain the same size as seeded trees. Smaller trees are easier to harvest. The tree may remain productive until it reaches old age, yielding up to 150 kg/tree or over 2 t/ha a year.
Tamarix aphylla	Weeding is necessary to facilitate proper growth at the early stages of establishment but eventually its litter suppresses the weeds. Young seedlings should be protected from grazing. Drastic thinning is done when the plants have attained over two years of growth to (30) 37-50 plants/ha. Pruning is necessary to prevent development into a shrub with many weak main stems which are subject to splitting and breaking off at ground level. Wood can be exploited for fuel in the fourth year after planting. Coppices readily and shoots after heavy lopping which is rare in arid zone species. The species has extensive surface roots which makes it unpopular for intercropping due to excessive competition for water and nutrients with crops. Also older trees have a tendency of blowing over in high wind.
Tarchonanthus camphoratus	T. camphoratus has a moderate growth rate, 600-800 mm/year. Coppicing is an important management practice, and T. camphoratus coppices readily. It is an invasive colonizer, use of controlled burning and grazing management or arboricides such as 2,4,5-T, picrolam and 2,4-D check its spread. Application of a mixture of picloram and 2,4-D after the late long rains from May-July proves superior in managing it, injection is suitable for single-stemmed trees of diameter approximately 5 cm, while stump treatment is employed for plants that can be utilized for charcoal and foliar application is effective depending on the stage of growth. Goat browsing also checks regrowth of T. camphoratus.
Teclea nobilis	A moderate to slow growing tree. Can be managed by coppicing and pollarding.
Tectona grandis	For plantations, stumps are planted at a spacing of 2 x 2 m. As the tree is deciduous, raising pure plantations is discouraged; rather, it is recommended to raise 80% of mixed indigenous species and the remaining 20% T. grandis. Fire protection is important; each year’s planting area should be should be protected by a fire line 10 m wide, which is cleared of all vegetation. Plantations must also be protected from grazing animals, as the soil is often susceptible to erosion. Coppicing and weeding should also be practised. T. grandis is a very strong light demander, and the optimum for its growth lies at 75-100% of full sunlight. It is intolerant of crown friction. Initial growth of the tree is rapid. At an age of 5 years, an average height of 13 m and 10 cm dbh is not unusual; after 10 years, 16.5 m and 15 cm; after 20 years, 21.5 m and 23.5 cm. After 15 or 20 years, growth slows down. In stands of 80-year-old trees, maximum height is about 45 m, with a maximum diameter of 75 cm. Thinning takes place 4 times, at 5-, 10-, 18- and 28-year intervals after planting. The rotation period is approximately 80 years. The average plantation yield in Java is 60-100 m³/ha, including thinning. Occasionally the final harvest may yield as much as 390 m³/ha in stands 80 years old. The mean annual volume increment is (min. 1) 3-6 (max. 15) m³/ha.
Terminalia arjuna	Arjun, an initial slow-grower, later grows very fast to attain 2–3 m height in 3 years. Weeding and protection from fire and frost is needed for the first two years. Pruning is required to remove the weaker shoots when forking takes place due to frost damage. Selection management systems can be utilized to extract timber, which is 50-60 cm dbh. Arjun has been successfully grown in taungya plantations. Plantations established in India for tasar sericulture, have a spacing of 1 x 2 m, and are managed by repeated pollarding. It also coppices strongly if cut when smaller than approximately 76 cm dbh, yielding poles, posts and firewood. It produces root suckers and is suitable for pollarding.
Terminalia bellirica	The species is a light demander and fairly drought resistant. It coppices well after pollarding especially if planted on a wide spacing. Spacing of 3-4 m apart in pure plantation is common. Good protection from grazing is required.
Terminalia brownii	A major drawback of T. brownii is its slow growth, but this can be increased by irrigation. Trees should be coppiced and need be given support when young.
Terminalia ivorensis	A very fast rate of growth, straight stem and self-pruning habit, even at an early stage, make this an ideal species for the creation of large-scale, even-aged plantations. The tree coppices well even to an advanced age, but it is normally managed on a coppice rotation. It is killed by drought within a few weeks of planting. On plantations, weeding up to the 2nd year and line cleaning or creeper cutting from the 3rd year up to the 6th year may be necessary. Because of the wide-spreading branches, T. ivorensis is more suitable for line planting than for planting in pure plantations. The rotation applied in favourable locations in Africa is 40 years.
Terminalia superba	The young tree grows straight and vigorously in full light, particularly if its crown is free, but stagnates under shade. In the oldest stands in Congo, which are now 30 years old, a spacing of 12 x 12 m appears to be appropriate, and trees are straight and vigorous. Natural pruning is excellent and starts early, at 3-4 years, and from then onwards the degree of self-pruning has a strong effect on the health and future value of the tree. It coppices readily from tree stumps, bears copious amounts of seed every year, and under plantation conditions achieves sexual maturity after 6-10 years. The rotation period as applied in favourable locations in Africa is 40 years.
Tipuana tipu	T. tipu is a fast growing species that responds well to pollarding, coppicing and lopping. Trees are shallow rooted therefore should not be planted close to buildings as they are likely to be blown over by wind. They should be transplanted from their containers in cool weather, and the young plants should be staked and watered until roots are established. Planting in highly alkaline soil should be avoided. Occasional pruning and deep waterings is recommended, once the hardy plants are established.
Toona ciliata	Toona is a moderate light demander; however, the young plants require some side protection from direct sun. Trees growing in such situations develop a tall, clean bole up to a height of 9-12 m; in the open they tend to have a large, spreading crown and short, clean bole 3.6-4.2 m. Seedlings are sensitive to fire, cannot withstand severe drought and are susceptible to suppression by weeds. The tree is frost hardy. It coppices well and produces plentiful root suckers. It has a spreading superficial root system, which may have adverse effects on the growth of agricultural crops. The tendency to become branchy should be controlled by close initial spacing. Thinning is required from the 4th year, and thereafter every 5 years. If tended and watered in the early stages it is capable of growing in comparatively dry areas, such as those with rainfall as low as 750 mm, and with maximum temperatures as high as 49 deg. C. Good drainage is necessary for optimum development of the seedlings, as excessive moisture restricts root development.
Trema orientalis	T. orientalis is very fast growing, attaining a harvestable size for pulpwood in 3-4 years. It coppices well and its extensive root system enables it to withstand dry periods. The tree regenerates profusely through its numerous seeds and is a common colonizer of disturbed rainforest areas.
Uapaca kirkiana	In natural stands, the trees coppice well after cutting or pollarding. Grows slowly when it is not managed, but growth rates improve tremendously with inoculation and weeding. Total fire protection of planted stands is mandatory for successful establishment, after which, the use of fire as a management tool could be applied as appropriate.
Vangueria madagascariensis	Coppicing and pollarding are suitable management practices. The crop is mostly semi-cultivated on farms. Because it is a light demander, the planting area should be cleared of most other vegetation. Weeding the crop until it is well established is essential.
Vernonia amygdalina	A medium to fast growing tree suited to coppicing.
Vitex doniana	V. doniana has a medium growth rate. Coppicing and lopping are recommended forms of management.
Vitex keniensis	A fairly fast-growing tree. Coppicing is practised. The crop may reach a mean thinning cycle of 3-5 years. It might be justifiable to thin the crop down to 200 stems/ha or fewer and leave it to grow to age 45.
Vitex negundo	Sambhalu grows moderately to fairly fast and can be managed by coppicing with a rotation of 2 years. It yields about 0.3 tons/ha of air-dry fuelwood when planted on contours 5 m apart.
Vitex payos	Partial clearing of vegetation is essential before planting out to open up space. Tending should include spot weeding and slashing until the crop is well established. The tree coppices well.
Warburgia salutaris	The tree has coppicing abilities. Care and good time management must be taken during bark removal to avoid tree mortality. The tree can be planted along fence lines, in scattered groups or, preferably, in a small plantation. Although fairly slow growing, in warm, frost-free areas growth can be as much as 90 cm/year.
Warburgia ugandensis	Deserves wide planting as a shapely garden or park tree, but young plants can be difficult to obtain. The bark is frequently removed for medicinal use, and care must be taken to avoid tree mortality. A fairly slow-growing tree, but once established it is hardy and coppicing can be practised.
Wrightia tinctoria	W. tinctoria coppices well and also produces root suckers. It’s slow to moderate growing. The saplings start to flower and fruit when they are 5-8 years old. The planted seedling should be protected from livestock browsing The tree is sensitive to frost and is damaged by drought. It shows tolerance to high uranium levels in soils in India.
Ximenia americana	For life fence purposes, trimming is necessary. Coppicing is also a recommended practice.
Ximenia caffra	Ximenia caffra has good seed germination capacity and profuse natural regeneration, but saplings may succumb to prolonged drought or forest fires. Partial protection of natural woodland could help promote regeneration.
Zanthoxylum chalybeum	Coppicing and pollarding are recommended.
Ziziphus mauritiana	Z. mauritiana is a fast-growing species. Under favourable conditions, height increment on loose soil is 75 cm in 1 year and 1.2 m in 2 years; growth is stragglier by the 3rd season, when under similar growth conditions plants are thick and bushy, up to 1.5 m high. Growth is poor under natural conditions, 5-8 cm high after 1st season and 17-35 cm after 2nd season; Z. mauritiana coppices well and grows vigorously from stumps and root suckers. Fruiting starts after 3-5 years and is usually very abundant.
Ziziphus mucronata	Z. mucronata is very adaptable, growing in all types of soil and standing intense heat and cold equally well. A fast-growing tree, under good conditions it will reach a height of 4-6 m in 4-5 years. Can be managed through lopping, pollarding and coppicing. Trees can be planted as scattered groups of 10-20 individuals to act initially as fodder trees and later as shade. Young trees must be protected from browsing cattle. The root system is not aggressive.
Zizyphus nummularia	It produces copious coppice shoots and roots suckers forming dense thorny thickets often collecting moulds of leaves and dust.