World Agroforestry Centre | agroforestree database 4.0

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This database provides detailed information on a total of 670 agroforestry tree species. It is intended to help field workers and researchers in selecting appropriate species for agroforestry systems and technologies.

For each species, the database includes information on identity, ecology and distribution, propagation and management, functional uses, pests and diseases and a bibliography.

This project has been funded by the British Department for International Development (DFID, the European Union and the World Agroforestry Centre (ICRAF).

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Abelmoschus moschatus	It is a relative of the edible Okra and tubers and foliage were a source of food for Aborigines.
Acacia aneura	The Australian Aborigines ground the mulga seed for flour. The seeds have a protein content comparable to dried split peas or peanuts.
Acacia catechu	Seeds contain water-soluble mucilage (6.8%); a good protein source but nutritionally incomplete with respect to essential amino acids.
Acacia erioloba	A. erioloba produces a good quality, edible gum. Seeds have been used as a substitute for coffee.
Acacia holosericea	Seeds are edible, but consumption is limited by chances of toxicity, the labour-intensive procedure of preparating them for making flour, and their unpleasant odour.
Acacia karroo	The gum is eaten as a confection; seeds are substitute for coffee, and children chew the sweet thorns.
Acacia laeta	The gum produced by A. laeta is edible.
Acacia leucophloea	The germinated seeds are cooked and eaten as a vegetable. They contain crude protein 27 % dry matter. The other major nutrient contents are crude lipid 5 %, crude fibre 7 %, ash 4 % and total crude carbohydrates, 58 %. The seeds are a rich source of minerals such as calcium, magnesium, phosphorus, iron and manganese. The predominant seed protein fractions are globulins and albumins. The essential amino acids, cystine, methionine, tyrosine and phenylalanine, have been found to be low and threonine, valine, isoleucine and lysine fairly high compared with the FAO/WHO/UNO amino acid recommended pattern. The lipids contain high amounts of unsaturated fatty acids in which linoleic acid (51 %) is the major fatty acid.
Acacia mangium	The germinating seeds can be cooked and eaten as a vegetable.
Acacia mellifera	Gum collected from injured stems is edible and relished by children, animals and birds.
Acacia nilotica subsp nilotica	Tender pods and shoots are used as a vegetable, and roasted seed kernels are sometimes used in Sudan for food flavouring. Air-dried seeds contain crude protein and are eaten raw or roasted in India in time of acute food scarcity.
Acacia pachycarpa	The seeds are nutritious, containing 22% crude protein, 8% fat and 57% carbohydrate. The Aborigines of Australia reportedly used them as a staple food.
Acacia pennatula	There are few reports on regular human consumption of flour made from the pods or seeds of this plant.
Acacia senegal	The seeds are dried and preserved for human consumption as a vegetable. The dried seed is the main component of panchkut, a delicacy in Jodhpur, India, also containing fruits of Capparis decidua, Cucumis sativa and Prosopis cinerearia.
Acacia seyal	Gum talha from A. seyal is eaten when fresh, although it has slightly acid taste. It is also mixed with pulp from the fruit of Balanites aegyptiaca to make a syrup.
Acacia sieberiana	A. sieberana produces an edible gum.
Acacia tortilis	In Kenya, the Turkana make porridge from the pods after extracting the seed; the Maasai eat the immature seeds.
Adansonia digitata	An edible white, powdery pulp found in the fruit is very rich in vitamin C and B2 and makes a refreshing drink. Ripe fruits are collected and cracked to remove the ‘flour’, which is mixed with milk to prepare a flavoured fermented porridge. Young leaves are also rich in Vitamin C, contain uronic acids, and are high in demand in West Africa as a soup vegetable. In Ferlo, North Senegal, an extract of the leaves, called ‘lalo’, is used to give couscous (millet porridge) a smooth consistency. The leaves also form an excellent condiment and seasoning. The small stem and roots of the seedlings are eaten as vegetable; mature, thick roots are cooked and eaten during famine. A root decoction is widely used in Sierra Leone as food. It is prepared by boiling, roasting, soaking or fermenting the roots, and tastes like almonds. Having a high water content, the wood is chewed by humans and animals in case of extreme water scarcity. The wood can be used as a salt substitute. The acid pith is used as a substitute for cream of tartar in baking, to curdle milk and smoke fish. It is also roasted and used as a coffee substitute. The seeds contain appreciable quantities of tartaric acid and potassium bitar; they are refreshing to suck, and when soaked in water make a palatable drink.
Adenanthera pavonina	Known as ‘food tree’ in Melanesia and Polynesia, the seeds of this tree are roasted over a fire and eaten by children and adults alike. Nutritional studies have shown that 1/4 of the seed weight is oil, with a high percentage of protein and a fatty acid composition, resulting in high digestibility in humans. Seeds may require boiling to neutralize toxicity. Young leaves are eaten as a vegetable.
Aegle marmelos	A. marmelos fruits may be cut in half, or the soft types broken open, and the pulp, dressed with palm sugar, eaten for breakfast, as is a common practice in Indonesia. The pulp is often processed as nectar. Beating the seeded pulp together with milk and sugar makes a popular drink called sherbet in India. A beverage is also made by combining bael fruit pulp with that of tamarind. Mature but still unripe fruits are made into jam, with the addition of citric acid. Confection, bael fruit toffee, is prepared by combining the pulp with sugar, glucose, skim milk powder and hydrogenated fat. Indian food technologists view the prospects for expanded bael fruit processing as highly promising. The young leaves and shoots are eaten as a vegetable in Thailand and used to season food in Indonesia. They are said to reduce the appetite. An infusion of the flowers is a cooling drink. The food value per 100 g of fresh bael fruit as analyzed in India and the Philippines is: water 54.96-61.5 g, protein 1.8-2.62 g, fat 0.2-0.39 g, carbohydrates 28.11-31.8 g, ash 1.04-1.7 g, carotene55 mg, thiamine 0.13 mg, riboflavin1.19 mg, niacin 1.1 mg, ascorbic acid 8-60 mg and tartaric acid 2.11 mg.
Afzelia africana	The flour from seeds is used as a substitute for wheat flour in biscuits and doughnuts.
Afzelia quanzensis	A. quanzensis leaves are eaten as a vegetable.
Ailanthus altissima	Leaves have been used as adulterants of belladonna and senna products. The seed is reported to contain 27 g protein and 56-59 g fat per 100 g.
Albizia adianthifolia	The local people in southern Africa make a sauce from the seeds.
Albizia amara	Leaves are used as an adulterant for tea.
Albizia anthelmintica	A. anthelmintica roots are commonly used as additive in meat and milk based soups.
Albizia procera	In the Philippines, cooked leaves are eaten as a vegetable. In times of scarcity the bark can be ground with flour and eaten.
Albizia saman	Children eat the pods, which contain a sticky, sweet-flavoured pulp. A fruit drink is also made from the pulp.
Albizia zygia	The young leaves are cooked and consumed as a vegetable, especially in soups. Analysis of the seeds reveals a low crude protein content. Amino acids such as lysine, sulfur amino acids and threonine are limiting, indicating the limited nutritional value of A. zygia seeds.
Aleurites moluccana	Kernels when roasted and cooked are considered edible; may be strung as candle nuts. After removing the hard outer coat, the seed is pounded and eaten as a sauce. Per 100 g, the seed is reported to contain 626 calories, 63 g fat, 19 g protein, 8 g total carbohydrate, 7 g water, 3 g ash, 200 mg phosphorus, 80 mg calcium, 2 mg iron, and 0.06 mg thiamine.
Allanblackia floribunda	Seeds and fruits are edible. The seeds yield a vegetable butter while the bitter seedcake is used as an animal feed. In Amani (Tanzania), the seeds were extensively used as a butter substitute in manufacture of chocolate during the First World War
Allanblackia stuhlmannii	Seeds are pounded and cooked to extract an edible fat. In Amani (Tanzania), the seeds were extensively used as a butter substitute in manufacture of chocolate during the First World War. Recently, GAPEX company had been buying seeds at 2-3 Tshs per kilogram for oil extraction.
Allanblackia ulugurensis	The seeds yield an edible white fat used in cooking and lighting. The seeds are dried in the sun for several days, pounded into a powder and boiled in water. The fat or oil, which floats on water, is removed for use. The seeds has recently been collected from the natural forests and sold to General Agricultural products Export Company (GAPEX) for export.
Alstonia scholaris	The latex provides a good quality chewing gum.
Altingia excelsa	The young reddish-brown tips of the branches or leaves are eaten raw or cooked as a vegetable or mixed in a salad. The sweetly scented seeds are food for monkeys and birds
Anacardium occidentale	A. occidentale is cultivated for its nuts. Botanically, the nut is the fruit; the cashew apple is the swollen, fleshy fruit stalk. The seeds kernels are extracted by shelling the roasted nuts. In production areas, cashew serves as food. Elsewhere it forms a delicacy. The kernels are nutritious, containing fats, proteins, carbohydrates, vitamins and minerals. In Brazil, Mozambique and Indonesia, the cashew apple is also important; it is eaten fresh or mixed in fruit salads, and a drink is prepared from the juice; sweets and jams can also be prepared from it. Young shoots and leaves are eaten fresh or cooked.
Andira inermis	In Africa, a decoction of the leaves is used as beverage and the fruits are eaten
Annona cherimola	The white flesh of the ripe cherimoya is sweet, juicy and very fragrant. It is most commonly eaten out of-hand or scooped with a spoon from the cut open fruit. In Mexico, sometimes people add a few drops of lime juice. Occasionally it is seeded and added to fruit salads or used for making sherbet or ice cream. Colombians strain out the juice, add a slice of lemon and dilute with ice-water to make a refreshing soft drink. In Jamaica, the dried flowers have been used as flavoring for snuff.
Annona muricata	A. muricata can be consumed fresh for dessert when fully ripe or mixed with ice cream or milk to make a delicious drink, as is done in Java and in Cuba and other parts of America. However, more often the puree is consumed after squeezing the pulp through a sieve. It can be made into fruit jelly, juice (with sugar added), nectar or syrup. In Indonesia sweetcake (‘dodol sisrak’) is made by boiling A. muricata pulp in water and adding sugar until the mixture hardens. In the Philippines, young fruits with seeds that are still soft are used as a vegetable. Mature but firm fruits may be made into candy of delicate flavour and aroma. A. muricata fruit consists of about 67.5% edible pulp, 20% peel, 8.5% seeds and 4% core by weight. Sugars constitute about 68% of the total solids. The fruit is a good source of vitamins B (0.07 mg/100g) and C (20 mg/100 g) and a poor to fair source of calcium and phosphorus. The most desirable characteristics of the fruit are its extremely pleasing fragrance and flavour.
Annona reticulata	In India, the fruit is eaten only by the lower classes, out-of-hand. In central America, Mexico and the west Indies, the fruit is appreciated by all. When fully ripe it is soft to the touch and the stem and attached core can be easily pulled out. The flesh may be scooped from the skin and eaten as is or served with light cream and a sprinkling of sugar. Often it is pressed through a sieve and added to milk shakes, custards or ice cream. A sauce is made by blending the seeded flesh with mashed banana and cream.
Annona senegalensis	The leaves are sometimes used as vegetables, while the edible white pulp of the ripe fruit has a pleasant, pineapple-like taste. Flowers serve as a spice for various meals.
Annona squamosa	Fruits are normally eaten fresh. The pulp can be used as a flavouring in ice cream. Between 50-80% of the fruit is edible. The vitamin C content is appreciable (35-42 mg/100 g) and slightly higher than in grapefruit. The nutrient value of thiamine, potassium and dietary fibre is also significant.
Anthocephalus cadamba	The fruit and inflorescences are reportedly edible.
Antiaris toxicaria	The fruit is edible.
Antidesma bunius	Mostly children eat the fruits. Indonesians cook the fruits with fish. Elsewhere the fruits (unripe and ripe together) are made into jam and jelly though the juice is difficult to jell and pectin must be added. Some cooks add lemon juice as well. If the extracted bignay juice is kept under refrigeration for a day or so, there is settling of a somewhat astringent sediment, which can be discarded, thus improving the flavor. For several years, the richly colored jelly was produced on a small commercial scale in southern Florida. The juice makes excellent syrup and has been successfully fermented into wine and brandy. In Indonesia and the Philippines, the leaves are eaten raw or stewed with rice. They are often combined with other vegetables as flavouring.
Araucaria bidwillii	The raw or roasted seeds are an important item of the diet for some of the aborigines in Queensland.
Arbutus unedo	Fruits can be eaten fresh or cooked but has little flavor. The fruit contains about 20% sugars and is used to make delicious and nourishing jams and preserves. The fruits can be fermented to make aromatic alcoholic beverages. In Portugal, strawberry tree fruits are fermented to make a strong tasting wine known as medronho or medronheira, tsipuoro in Greece, Fior de Corbezzolo in Sicily, Creme d'Arbouse in Corsica among others.
Arenga pinnata	A. pinnata is a popular plant because of its year-round food production, especially in the dry season when other food is scarce. Its most important product is sweet sap, called saguer, which is used as a drink and as the raw material for sugar production. Fruits contain 6.8% moisture, 7.9% ash, 16.2% crude fibre, 10% crude protein and 1.5% fat. Trees more than 15 years old produce, which people in some parts of Indonesia use like rice as a staple food. A sago-like flour can be ground from the trunk pith and used for cakes, noodles and other dishes. A product typically made from A. pinnata in West Java is kolang kaling, the cooked endosperm of young sugar palm fruits. One infructescence yields about 4 500 endosperms. It is used for a cocktail and local refreshment known as kolak. The stem is a form of sago, which is converted into sugar when the palm first begins to flower. Palm cabbage is eaten raw as a salad or cooked.
Argania spinosa	It is an importance as a source of edible (cooking) oil, which is an excellent source of vitamin E. The white seeds contain up to 50% of light brown oil with oil production being between 1000 to 2000 tons per year. This oil has a high nutritional value in the human diet. The locals mix oil with almonds and honey to make an almond butter; it also mixed with wheat germ and honey to make gruel. The residue from the kernels after oil extraction is a thick chocolate-coloured paste called 'amlou' which is sweetened and served as a dip for bread at breakfast time in Berber households. Its flavour is similar to that of peanut butter.
Artocarpus altilis	Breadfruit is versatile and can be cooked and eaten at all stages of its development. It can be eaten raw, boiled, steamed or roasted. Very small fruits, 2-6 cm or larger in diameter, can be boiled and have a flavour similar to that of artichoke hearts. They can also be pickled and marinated. As breadfruit is a seasonal crop that produces much more than can be consumed fresh, Pacific Islanders have developed many techniques to use large harvests and extend availability of the fruit. The most common method of preservation is by preparing the fermented, pit-preserved breadfruit called ma, masi, mahr, furo or bwiru. In many areas, the male inflorescence is pickled or candied. Compared with other staple starch crops, breadfruit is a better source of protein than is cassava; it is comparable to sweet potato and banana. It is a relatively good source of iron, calcium, potassium and riboflavin. Fermented breadfruit and breadfruit paste are both traditional products. Processing breadfruit into a snack such as chips, flour, pulverized starch or even freeze-drying it are all common methods of consuming or preserving it. The seeds are cooked with the raw breadfruit or removed and roasted or boiled. They are firm, close-textured and have a sweet, pleasant taste that is most often compared with chestnuts. Both fresh and cooked seeds are about 8% protein. The seeds are a good source of protein and are low in fat, compared with tree nuts such as almond, brazil nut and macadamia nut, which contain 50-70% fat. The seeds are a good source of minerals and contain more niacin than cashews, almonds, macadamia nuts, brazil nuts, pecans, black walnuts or chestnuts.
Artocarpus camansi	The fruits are nutritious and consumed when immature; thinly sliced and boiled as a vegetable in soups or stews. The seeds are high in protein and relatively low in fat compared to nuts such as almond, Brazil nut, and macadamia nut; are a good source of minerals and contain more niacin than most other nuts; can be roasted and are similar to chestnuts in texture and flavor; can be canned in brine, or processed into nut butter or nut paste, flour, or oil.
Artocarpus heterophyllus	The pulp of young fruit is cooked as a vegetable, pickled or canned in brine or curry. Pulp of ripe fruit is eaten fresh or made into various local delicacies (e.g., ‘dodol’ and ‘kolak’ in Java), chutney, jam, jelly and paste, or preserved as candy by drying or mixing with sugar, honey or syrup. The pulp is also used to flavour ice cream and beverages, or reduced to a concentrate or powder and used for preparing drinks. Addition of synthetic flavours such as esters of 4-hydroxybutyric acid greatly improves the flavour of the canned fruit and nectar. The seeds, rich in vitamin A, sulphur, calcium and phosphorus, are eaten after boiling or roasting, dried and salted as table nuts, or ground to make flour that is blended with wheat flour for baking. Male spikes left to rot on trees are used as a salad or pickle.
Artocarpus integer	The unripe fruit is used as a vegetable or is made into pickle; ripe fruit is eaten fresh or preserved in syrup. The fruit contains large seeds enclosed in a yellow, juicy sheath with a strong flavour. The 2 common fruit varieties are kapa and barka. The former has a sweet, fleshy, crisp pericarp while the latter is inferior and has a thin mucilage and sour pericarp. A. integer seeds are rich in starch and are eaten.
Artocarpus lakoocha	The fruits and male flowers are eaten raw, boiled, steamed or roasted.
Artocarpus mariannensis	The nutritious fruits are consumed when mature or ripe and are typically roasted or baked. Ripe fruits can be eaten raw but are usually cooked. The seeds are high in protein, carbohydrates, low in fat, and a good source of minerals and vitamins, especially vitamin A. Cooked sprouted seeds are a delicacy on some atolls.
Asimina triloba	Fruits are frequently eaten raw or used in ice creams or baked into pies, or made into dessert although they can cause nausea in some people. The unique flavor of the fruit resembles a blend of various tropical flavors, including banana, pineapple, and mango. The flavor and custard-like texture make pawpaws a good substitute for bananas in almost any recipe. Pawpaws are very nutritious fruits. The fruit is particularly low in moisture content, high caloric content, high in vitamins A and C, magnesium, iron, copper, and manganese. They are a good source of potassium and several essential amino acids, and contain significant amounts of riboflavin, niacin, calcium, phosphorus, and zinc. Pawpaws contain these nutrients in amounts that are generally about the same as or greater than those found in bananas, apples, or oranges.
Averrhoa bilimbi	A. bilimbi is generally regarded as too acidic for eating raw, but in Costa Rica, the green, uncooked fruits are prepared as a relish which is served with rice and beans or an accompaniment for fish and meat. Ripe fruits are frequently added to curries in the Far East. They yield 44.2% juice having a pH of 4.47, and the juice is popular for making cooling beverages. Mainly, the bilimbi is used in place of mango to make chutney, and it is much preserved. To reduce acidity, it may be first pricked and soaked in water overnight, or soaked in salted water for a shorter time; then it is boiled with much sugar to make a jam or an acid jelly. The latter, in Malaysia, is added to stewed fruits that are oversweet. Half-ripe fruits are salted, set out in the sun, and pickled in brine and can be thus kept for 3 months. A quicker pickle is made by putting the fruits and salt into boiling water. This product can be kept only 4-5 days. The flowers are sometimes preserved with sugar.
Averrhoa carambola	Fruits are refreshing eaten fresh, mixed with other fruits, in salads, or processed into drinks. They are also stewed, pickled or used for chutney and jam. The fruit flavour is enhanced by peeling off the ‘wing’ edges, which removes most of the oxalic acid. Because the fruit is extremely perishable it must be consumed locally. Some Brazilian cultivars have a very high content of vitamin C as well as an applicable amount of provitamin A.
Azadirachta excelsa	In the Malaysian Peninsular, the young shoots, leaves and flowers are consumed as a vegetable.
Azadirachta indica	Fruits are eaten fresh or cooked, or prepared as a dessert or lemonade-type drink. The young twigs and flowers are occasionally consumed as vegetables.
Azanza garckeana	Ripe fruit carpels are edible and have an energy content of 8.10 kJ/g. A sweet mucilage comes out when chewed. The fruit may be eaten raw if gathered green and juicy and the rind is peeled off. Boiled, it is widely used as a relish or made into porridge. The fruit pulp at 52% dry matter contains 35% carbohydrates, 45% fibre, 1% fat, 12% crude proteins and 21 mg/100 g ascorbic acid. The leaves make a relish or can be burned to produce salts.
Balanites aegyptiaca	The fleshy pulp of both unripe and ripe fruit is edible and eaten dried or fresh. The fruit is processed into a drink and sweetmeats in Ghana, an alcoholic liquor in Nigeria, a soup ingredient in Sudan. Young leaves and tender shoots are used as a vegetable, which is boiled, pounded, then fried or fat added to prepare it. The flowers are a supplementary food in West Africa and an ingredient of ‘dawa dawa’ flavouring in Nigeria. Flowers are sucked to obtain nectar.
Barringtonia procera	The fruit kernel is edible, tasty, and highly nutritious and is eaten as a snack or prepared into dishes for a main meal. It can be roasted and baked into puddings together with edible hibiscus (Abelmoschus manihot) and coconut cream. It contains protein and carbohydrate at about 10% and 25%, respectively, in its raw form. The mesocarp of a ripe fruit is aromatic and has potential for flavoring.
Barringtonia racemosa	Young leaves are eaten as a vegetable; seeds are pounded to extract the starchy content, which is made into cakes.
Bauhinia purpurea	The young leaves and flowers of various Bauhinia species are eaten as a side dish with rice, or used to flavour meat and fish. Sometimes the seeds are edible.
Bauhinia rufescens	In Ghana, farmers, hunters and field workers eat the wild fruits.
Bauhinia variegata	The leaves, flowers and flower buds are eaten as vegetables.
Berchemia discolor	Humans find the sweet, datelike taste of the fruit quite pleasant. The sugar content of the pulp is as high as 30%, and seeds taste like walnuts. The vitamin C content of the fruit is 65 mg/100 g. The fruit may be eaten boiled with sorghum. A beverage similar to tea is made from the leaves. Large quantities of the fruit are collected, dried and stored and later used by people in the low veld areas of South Africa.
Bertholletia excelsa	Dry nuts contain 63-69% oil, 14-17% protein and 4% fibre, so they are a good source of calories and protein. Kernels are eaten raw, toasted or used in confectionery, often as a substitute for other nuts or grated coconut.
Bischofia javanica	The young soft leaves are cooked and eaten as a vegetable.
Bixa orellana	In Mexico, Spain and the Philippines, the thin pigmented pulp covering the seeds is used as a condiment.
Blighia sapida	This delicacy is enjoyed by many at breakfast or as an entree. Parboiled and then fried, it has a nutty flavour, excellent with fish or bacon. Cooked, it resembles a "vegetable brain." The canned product is exported to ethnic markets worldwide and continues to be enjoyed by both visitors to the island and Jamaicans residing overseas.
Bombax costatum	The calyx of the flowers is used in ‘futo’ or sauces and the young fruit is cut around August and September, dried, and used for the preparation of meals. The unripe fruit is cut in pieces and used in the production of a beverage. The high protein content, low content of toxic substances and amount of polyunsaturated fats in seed oil suggest that B. costatum is potentially suitable for human and animal consumption.
Borassus aethiopum	The fruits have a large, fibrous pulp (around 500 g each) that smells strongly of therbenthine. They are consumed raw or cooked, preferably with rice. The kernels contain an albumen, which before ripening is sweet and refreshing. The immature seeds can be eaten and contain a sweet jelly that has a refreshing taste. The mature seeds can be buried in pits and allowed to germinate, and the shoots are said to be a delicacy. Fresh sap is used as a yeast or made into vinegar.
Boscia angustifolia	Fruit and seeds are edible after cooking. Stripped bark is eaten mixed with millet or as soup in West Africa. Pieces of boiled wood are used to sweeten milk.
Boscia senegalensis	The fruit is often gathered for human consumption; usually very acid, it becomes edible after soaking in water for about a week. In the eastern Sudan for instance, men and women may spend up to 8 hours a day searching for B. senegalensis. The fruits are frequently sold in the markets for food. It is a regular item of diet in saharo-sahelian zone and sahel, further south, they are mainly supplementary, but their main value is as an emergency food. Seeds are a staple food of the Peuhls of Senegal, but also an important famine food.
Bridelia micrantha	The fruits are sweet and edible when ripe and taste slightly like currants.
Brosimum alicastrum	Humans eat the fruit’s sweet pericarp and its chestnutlike seeds. The seeds taste somewhat like potato and are eaten raw, boiled or roasted. They are also reduced to a meal that is mixed with maize meal to make tortillas, or are baked with green plantain. The seeds are gathered by the Mayans of Central America for making bread when stocks of maize run low. The trees can be tapped and the free-flowing, milky latex mixed with chicle or drunk like cow’s milk.
Broussonetia papyrifera	Paper mulberry can be used as a food for both human and animal consumption. The flowers and young leaf of the variety Brussonetia kurzii has a protein content of 16-21%, together with nutrient minerals such as P, K, Ca and Mg and is suitable for human consumption. The fruit comprises a ball about 1.5 cm in diameter with numerous small edible fruits protruding-there is not much edible flesh but it has been reported to have a lovely flavour.
Bruguiera gymnorhiza	The leaves and peeled seedlings are soaked, boiled and eaten. Seedlings are the staple food in some parts of Papua New Guinea, but in Moluccas it is only a famine food. Seedlings are sliced, soaked to leach out the tannins, and then ground into a paste to make a sweetmeat. The bark may also be used to flavour fish.
Byrsonima crassifolia	The fruits are eaten raw or cooked as dessert, or may be included in soup or in stuffing for meats. The fruits are often used to prepare carbonated beverages.
Cadaba farinosa	The young leaves are edible and are also used in spicing and flavouring food.
Cajanus cajan	The seeds of C. cajan can be used as a vegetable. Very young pods are harvested before the seeds are distinct and are cooked in curries or used to make relishes. The dry seeds have several products such as tempe (a traditional Indonesian food prepared by fermenting with a Rhizopus mould then soaked, dehulled and cooked legume seeds), and ketchup (pigeonpea sauce, a replacement for soy sauce in Indonesia that is made by fermenting C. cajan with Apergillus oryzae). C. cajan flour (mixed with wheat to improve the protein level of baked products) and clear noodles of a quality higher than that of mung bean are made from dehulled seed. Fresh seeds contain vitamins, especially provitamin A and vitamin B complex. Per a 100 g edible portion, dry seeds contain 7-10.3 g water, 14-30 g protein, 1-9 g fat, 36-65.8 g carbohydrates, 5-9.4 g fibre and 3.8 g ash. The energy content averages 1450 kJ/100 g.
Calophyllum inophyllum	The fruit is edible; usually it is pickled but care must be taken with it, as it contains toxins.
Calotropis procera	The bark and latex are used in brewing and to curdle milk.
Cananga odorata	The oil is sometimes used in food and beverages.
Canarium indicum	The oily nuts (seeds) are eaten raw or roasted as a dessert after the removal of testa .The fresh seed oil is mixed with food. Nut contains 70-80% oil, 13% protein and 7% starch. The young shoot is edible and can be used in cooking and in making green salads.
Canarium ovatum	The most important product from C. ovatum is the kernel. When raw, its flavour resembles roasted pumpkinseed, and when roasted, its mild, nutty flavour and tender, crispy texture are superior the almond. It has been recorded that the testa should be removed before the kernel is eaten, because it causes diarrhoea. Pili kernel is also used in chocolate, ice cream and baked goods. Nutritionally, the kernel contains 71.1% fat, 11.4% protein and 8.4% carbohydrates; it is high in calcium, phosphorus and potassium. The kernel is a major ingredient in a famous Chinese festive dessert known as the ‘moon cake’. However, kernels from some trees may be bitter, fibrous or have a turpentine odour. Young shoots are used in salads, and the fruit pulp is eaten after it is boiled and seasoned. Boiled pili pulp resembles the sweet potato in texture, it is oily (about 12%) and is considered to have food value similar to the avocado. Pulp oil can be used for cooking. Young shoots are used in salads, and the fruit pulp is eaten after it is boiled and seasoned. Boiled pili pulp resembles the sweet potato in texture, it is oily (about 12%) and is considered to have food value similar to the avocado. Pulp oil can be used for cooking.
Canarium schweinfurthii	The slightly greenish outer pulp of the fruit is oily and edible. It can be eaten raw or softened in warm water to improve palatability. The pulp oil is about 71 % palmitic acid and 18 % oleic acid. The seed-kernel is oily and edible. They are cooked, and in Nigeria, sometimes prepared into a vegetable-butter and eaten as a substitute for shea-butter. They contain several fatty acids including oleic (36 %), linoleic (28 %), palmitic (26 %), stearic (7 %).
Capparis decidua	The fruit is relished by camels and also, wherever within their reach, by goats. The fruits are also consumed by man in the Sudan.
Capparis tomentosa	Fruits are edible and are popular with African children.
Carica papaya	Ripe papaya is a favourite breakfast and dessert fruit that is available year-round. It can be used to make fruits salads, refreshing drinks, jam, jelly, marmalade, candies and crystallized fruit. Green fruit is pickled or cooked as vegetable or as a substitute for applesauce. About 60% of the ripe fruit is edible. The approximate content per 100 g edible portion is water 86.6 g, protein 0.5 g, fat 0.3 g, carbohydrates 12.1 g, fibre 0.7 g, ash 0.5 g, potassium 204 mg, calcium 34 mg, phosphorus 11 mg, iron 1 mg, sodium 3 mg, vitamin A 450 mg, vitamin C 74 mg, thiamine 0.03 mg, niacin 0.5 mg, and riboflavin 0.04 mg. The energy value is 200 kJ/100 g. Major sugars are sucrose (48.3%), glucose (29.8%) and fructose (21.9%). In Java, a sweetmeat is made from the flowers. Young leaves are sometimes eaten.
Carissa congesta	The unripe fruit is sour and astringent and is used for pickles. When ripe it is sweet and is used for tarts, puddings and jellies. The syrup has been successfully utilized on a small scale in soft drinks.
Carissa edulis	Fruits are sweet and pleasant to eat; in Ghana, they are normally added to the food of invalids as an appetizer. Vinegar can be made from them by fermentation; in Sudan and Kenya, they are made into a jam. The roots are put into water gourds to impart an agreeable taste and are added to soups and stews for the same reason.
Caryota urens	A primary product of C. urens in rural communities is the sugar substitute called kitul honey or jaggary; juice from the flowers is concentrated in large, wide-mouthed vessels on an open fire to prepare a viscous, golden syrup with a delicious flavour. It is often served with a thick, fermented curd, prepared from buffalo milk. Alternatively the sap is further concentrated to give kitul jaggary (candy). The fruits contain raphides and are normally not eaten, although the seeds may be chewed. The apical region of the stem of young C. urens is used as a food source. The palm heart consisting of the apical meristem together with its immediate derivatives before thickening is eaten as a vegetable by rural people.
Casimiroa edulis	The fruit is edible and is used in Mexico and El Salvador as dessert. The flavour is sweet with a hint or more of bitterness and sometimes distinctly resinous.
Cassia fistula	Flowers are consumed by Santal people of India.
Cassia grandis	The membrane surrounding seeds is used as a chocolate substitute in Central America.
Castanospermum australe	The seeds are edible, but must be first sliced and washed in water for several days before cooking. The seeds cause severe gastrointestinal disturbance.
Celtis australis	Leaves and fruits are eaten in soups and salads.
Ceratonia siliqua	Carob pulp is high in total sugar content (48-56%). In addition, it contains about 18% cellulose and hemicellulose. Mineral composition consists of potassium, calcium, magnesium, sodium, iron, copper, iron, manganese and zinc. In some countries, Egypt for example, carob syrup is a popular drink, obtained from carob kibbles with water. Unicellular organisms convert carob pulp into a high-protein feed; sugar solutions extracted from carob pods are an excellent substrate for culturing fungi such as Aspergillus niger and Fusarium monoliforme, and the dried mycelium is a palatable and nutritious feed, containing up to 38% crude protein by weight. The carob product most widely used, especially in the food industry, is carob bean gum (CBG), or locust bean gum (LBG). This gum comes from the seed endosperm and chemically is a polysaccharide, a galactomnnan. 100 kg of seeds yield 20 kg on average of pure dry gum. The mucilaginous gum, known as ‘tragasol’, is used in a wide range of commercial products as a thickener, stabilizer, binder and gelling or dispersal agent. The food industry uses CBG for the production of a large number of different commodities: ice cream, soups, sauces, cheese, fruit pies, canned meats, confectionery, bakery products and pet foods. Technical applications of CBG include cosmetics, pharmaceuticals, film emulsions, paints, polishes, ceramics and adhesives. Pulp extracted and purified produces sugar and molasses. Powdered pulp is used as a food ingredient and cacao substitute and for preparing dietary products. Carob powder consists of 46% sugar, 7% protein and small amounts of numerous minerals and vitamins and is thus quite nutritious. Carob ‘cocoa’ has an advantage over chocolate in that it has fewer calories and neither caffeine nor theobromine. Ground seed embryo and endosperm can be used for human consumption; the latter, containing CBG and E-410, is a food additive and a dietary fibre.
Chrysophyllum albidum	The fleshy and juicy fruits, which are popularly eaten, are the potential source of a soft drink.
Chrysophyllum cainito	Its fruit is held in much the same estimation as Zapote. It is usually eaten fresh and may also be used as an ingredient of ice cream and sherbet. In Jamaica it is sometimes made into preserves. When unripe, the star apple contains a sticky, astringent, latex, but on ripening, a white translucent pulp with a sweet and pleasant flavour is formed around the dark seeds.
Cinchona pubescens	Nearly half of the harvested bark is directed to the food industry for the production of quinine water, tonic water, and as an FDA-approved bitter food additive.
Cinnamomum tamala	The leaves are used extensively in northern India as a spice - Tejpat. In Kashmir they are used as a substitute for paan (betel leaves).
Cinnamomum verum	Cinnamon bark oil is used in meat and fast-food seasoning, sauces and pickles, baked goods, confectionery and cola-type drinks. The leaf oil is also used as a flavouring agent for seasonings and savoury snacks. The oil’s high eugenol content makes it valuable as a source of this chemical for subsequent conversion into iso-eugenol, another flavouring agent. In Mexico, the bark is used to enhance the flavour of coffee.
Citrus bergamia	The juice of the fruit was formerly used to prepare calcium citrate and citric acid, while nowadays it is a component of citrus soft drinks.
Citrus maxima	The fruits are a rich source of vitamin C (more than Mandarin), B1, B2 and B12, protein and calcium. The juicy pulp is either eaten raw, in fruit salads or a juice may be extracted from it. The skinned segments can be broken apart and used in salads and desserts or made into preserves. The extracted juice is an excellent beverage and a food flavoring additive. Meanwhile the rind has pectin used in making jelly and candy.
Citrus sinensis	Fruits are a good source of vitamin C. They can be eaten fresh or made into juice, marmalade or jelly. In Brazil and Florida, juice the world’s largest producers, 90% of the production is converted to. Pectin, a setting agent, is made from the peel.
Cocos nucifera	Copra, the dried coconut endosperm, contains an edible cooking oil (coconut oil). The apical region of C. nucifera (‘millionaire salad’) is a food delicacy in areas where it is grown. Other food derivatives of coconut include coconut chips, coconut jam, coconut honey, coconut candy and other desserts.
Coffea arabica	Dried seeds (‘beans’) are roasted, ground, and brewed to make 1 of the 2 most popular beverages in the world. In its native Ethiopia, it has been used as a masticatory since ancient times. Cooked in butter, it can be used to make rich flat cakes. Coffee is widely used as flavouring in ice cream, pastries, candies, and liqueurs. In Arabia, a fermented drink from the pulp is consumed.
Cola nitida	The nuts taste bitter when chewed at first but they leave a sweet taste in the mouth later. Thus chewing cola nuts before drinking water helps to render the water sweeter. The bitter tasting seeds are much appreciated by Muslims in the drier region of West Africa, especially during the month of Ramadhan. Seeds consist of 13.5% water, 9.5% crude protein, 1.4% fat, 45% sugar and starch, 7% cellulose, 3.8% ash, also rich in alkaloids, caffeine (2.8%), theobroine (0.05%) and kolatine. The red nuts are a potential source of food colourant. Cola nuts, in combination with coca-leaf are incorporated in brands of cocoa, tonic wines and other beverages. The nuts are said to be restraining and to posses thirst-restraining properties. The nuts are used for non-alcoholic soft drinks like Coca-Cola. Nuts are very rich in caffeine.
Colophospermum mopane	Fruit is edible for humans but is utilized only as a famine food. The tree provides food indirectly because it is a host to the larval stage of the mopane worm (Gonimbrasia bellina). This hairless and black-spotted caterpillar, 5-8 cm long, is collected in large numbers and relished as food. Caterpillars are killed by boiling them in water; they are squeezed and dried for storage or are sold for immediate consumption. Their crude protein content is estimated at 47.5%.
Commiphora africana	Roots of young plants are juicy with a mildly sweet taste and can be chewed. The gum is also eaten; the bark is brewed to make a red tea.
Commiphora edulis	Fruits of subsp. holosericea are edible.
Cordeauxia edulis	The seeds are edible. The carbohydrate and protein content of the seeds is lower than in pulses and other legumes, but they are richer in sugars and fats, hence providing a balanced diet and high energy. The seed are eaten fresh, dried, roasted or boiled; they have a smooth consistency and an agreeable taste like cashew nut or chestnut. C. edulis is such a hardy species that during drought it is sometimes the only food left for the nomads; thus the plant can provide a valuable food for hot, dry regions, especially with low, uncertain rainfall.
Cordia africana	Mature fruits have a sweet, mucilaginous, edible pulp.
Cordia alliodora	The fruits are edible but not very tasty.
Cordia dichotoma	The immature fruits are pickled and are also used as a vegetable
Cordia sinensis	The sweet and sticky tasty pulp of the fruit is eaten fresh and often put in porridge as a sugar substitute. The fruit pulp is sometimes used to make juice or brew local beer and sometimes mixed with tamarind (Tamarindus indica) juice and fermented.
Coula edulis	The oily kernel has a taste comparable to that of a chestnut or hazelnut. It can be eaten raw, grilled or boiled. It contains 50% fat, of which 87% is oleic acid.
Cyphomandra betacea	Tamarillos are eaten by scooping out the entire fruit, discarding the exocarp and outer layer of the mesocarp. The refreshing, raw pulp is juicy, subacidic, pink, salmon or yellow. The unripe fruit can be used for chutney, curry and sambal (hot, chilli-based condiment). Only mature, tree-ripened fruits grown under favourable conditions develop the full flavour and aroma. The rather sharp, tart flavour typical of most red cultivars can be reduced by stewing. Properly ripened fruit is also essential for good quality stews, stuffings, jellies, jams, desserts and ice cream toppings. The red cultivars cannot be canned, as the redness signifies the presence of acidity that will corrode tin cans. The hard seeds may be strained out after boiling. Lime juice and sugar can be added to taste. Halves may be seasoned and baked or grilled. The fruits of C. betacea are relatively nutritious because of their high vitamin content. They are rich in beta-carotene, making them good sources of pro-vitamin A, and they contain large amounts of ascorbic acid or vitamin C. Their high protein content makes them especially suitable for jam- and jelly-making. Levels of nitrogen and free amino acids are higher than those of most fruits except avocados and bananas; the values for potassium and phosphorus are also high among fruits, which are normally poor sources of these elements.
Dacryodes edulis	The principle value of the tree lies in its fruit. The leathery, shelled stone is surrounded by a pulpy, butryaceous pericarp about 5 mm thick, which is the portion eaten either raw or cooked in form of a sort of butter. It has a mild smell of turpentine and is oily. The fruits are boiled in saltwater, fried or roasted over charcoal. The fruit pulp yields about 48% edible oil, is rich in vitamins and contains a range of amino acids.
Dialium guineense	The pulp is red, with a sweet-sour, astringent flavour similar to baobab, but sweeter. It is peeled and eaten raw; it can be a little constipating. The thirst-quenching, refreshing fruit pulp can also be soaked in water and drunk as a beverage. Leaves are bitter; they may be used to cook ‘domoda’, a Ghanaian dish that tastes both sweet and bitter.
Dichrostachys cinerea	Fruit and seeds from D. cinerea are edible.
Dimocarpus longan	Longans are much eaten fresh, out-of-hand, but some have maintained that the fruit is improved by cooking. In China, the majority are canned in syrup or dried. The canned fruits were regularly shipped from Shanghai to the United States in the past. Today, they are exported from Hong Kong and Taiwan. For drying, the fruits are first heated to shrink the flesh and facilitate peeling of the rind. Then the seeds are removed and the flesh dried over a slow fire. The dried product is black, leathery and smoky in flavor and is mainly used to prepare an infusion drunk for refreshment.
Diospyros kaki	Fully ripe fruits are usually eaten out-of-hand. The flesh may be added to salads, blended with ice cream mix or yoghurt, used in pastries, puddings, mousse, or made into jam or marmalade. Ripe fruits can be frozen whole or pulped. Drying is commonly practiced. Roasted seeds have served as a coffee substitute. Tea can also be made from fresh or dried leaves. Kaki is high in vitamin and a moderate source of ascorbic acid.
Diospyros melanoxylon	The fruits and powdered seeds are sold in local markets and eaten.
Diospyros mespiliformis	The edible fruit is used fresh in fermented drink or dried and stored for later use. It can also be made into a type of porridge or more commonly mixed in with mealie meal.
Diospyros virginiana	Persimmon fruit is edible raw, cooked or dried and used in breads, cakes, pies, puddings and is sometimes used in making wine. The dried, roasted, ground seeds have been used as a substitute for coffee. A tea made from dried leaves is high in vitamin C and has a pleasant flavour somewhat like sassafras. An oil obtained from the seeds is said to taste like peanut oil. Molasses can be made from the fruit pulp. Persimmon flowers are useful in the production of honey.
Dobera glabra	Fruits and seeds are edible; seeds need to be boiled for a long time before they can be eaten.
Dovyalis caffra	Ripe fruits are pleasantly flavoured and rich in vitamin C. They can be eaten fresh or made into jelly and jam.
Dracontomelon dao	The fruit is edible but considered inferior and mostly eaten by children, the kernel of the seed is also edible. Flowers and leaves are cooked and eaten as a vegetable in Papua New Guinea, and used as food flavouring in the Moluccas.
Durio zibethinus	Durian fruit is a good source of carbohydrates and also contains significant amounts of protein and vitamins B and C. Its rich pulp is eaten raw, cooked as a vegetable, frozen or dried for later use. Indonesians ferment the pulp for a side dish or mix the fleshy arils with rice and sugar to produce a local dish, lempong. The seeds can be boiled or roasted and used as confections.
Ekebergia capensis	Although the flesh of the fruit is edible, it is not very palatable.
Elaeis guineensis	Palm oil is popular in West Africa and Malaysia for cooking. It is now imported by India to meet local shortages in edible oil, being cheaper than many other vegetable oils. In West Africa, palm oil is often added directly to bring richness to soups and sauces. Addition of oil to cereal preparations greatly increases their calorific density, which is particularly advantageous for young children. Palm oil is also used as frying oil in the preparation of snacks such as bean cakes and fried plantain. Its 10% linoleic acid content makes it an excellent source of carotene. This is important in reducing incidence of vitamin A deficiency and the occurrence of nutritional blindness. Oil palm also provides heart-of-palm.
Emblica officinalis	Rural folk in India claim that eating the highly acid, fresh, raw fruit followed by water, produces a sweet and refreshing aftertaste. Woodcutters in Southeast Asia eat the emblic to avoid thirst, as the fruit stimulates the flow of saliva. This is the one tree left standing when forests are clear-cut in Thailand, and buses stop along highways to let thirsty travelers run to the tree to get the fruits. The emblic is regarded as sacred by many Hindus and the Hindu religion prescribes that ripe fruits be eaten for 40 days after a fast in order to restore health and vitality. It is a common practice in Indian homes to cook the fruits whole with sugar and saffron and give one or two to a child every morning. Fresh emblics are baked in tarts, added to other foods as seasoning during cooking, and the juice is used to flavor vinegar. Both ripe and half-ripe fruits are candied whole or made into jam and other preserves, sweetmeats, pickles and relishes. They are combined with other fruits in making chutney. In Indonesia, emblics are added to impart acidity to many dishes, often as a substitute for tamarinds. During World War II, emblic powder, tablets and candies were issued to Indian military personnel as vitamin C rations. In Thailand, where the tree is common in the forests, deer, especially the tiny barking deer, favours the fruits.
Enterolobium cyclocarpum	Immature pods are cooked as a vegetable, or the seeds are toasted and ground.
Eriobotrya japonica	The fruit has a thick, tough peel surrounding the firm flesh, with a flavour reminiscent of a peach. It is rich in pro-vitamin A, having a very high carotene content. E. japonica is usually eaten fresh but may be stewed, served as a sauce, syrup or jam, or made into an excellent jelly. The fruit composition is 84-89% water, 0.32-0.35 % protein, 0.3-0.6% lipids, 9.89-12.79% sugar and starch, 0.3-0.37% cellulose, and 0.29-0.26% ash. The fruits are a good source of acid and pectin. The seeds, which have an almondlike taste, are used to flavour drinks and cakes.
Erythrina berteroana	Young branches, tender glossy, green twigs, immature racemes and unopened flowers are cooked as a vegetable. They are marketed fresh or frozen.
Erythrina edulis	The seed is a component of many diets and contains 23% protein, 1% fat, 8% crude fiber and 84% moisture. Seeds have a good balance of amino acids and a digestibility of about 50% after cooking. Seeds must be boiled for at least 45 minutes or fried thoroughly before being eaten. As a paste, they provide a nutritious base for tortillas, desserts, pies, soups and food for infants. They are also boiled, sun dried, ground and added to flour. Research indicates that uncooked E. edulis seeds can be toxic if consumed over a long period.
Erythrina fusca	The young leaves are eaten as a vegetable in Java and Bali, and the flowers in Guatemala.
Erythrina indica	The new leaves are eaten in curries
Euclea divinorum	The fruits are edible. In East Africa the bark is used in the preparation of fatty-meat and milk soups. The roots are chewed to impart a red colour to the mouth.
Eugenia dombeyi	The fruit of E. dombeyi is appreciated more than that of several other, more widely grown Eugenia species. The fruit has a thin and delicate skin, soft and melting pulp and a mild subacid taste. The taste largely resides in the skin. It is eaten fresh when ripe, or made into jams, pies or preserves when half ripe. However, the persistent sepals ('rabbit ears') and the modest flesh to seed ratio limit the appeal of the fruit. Per 100 g edible portion, the fruit contains: water 85 g, protein 0.6 g, fat 0.3 g, carbohydrates 13.4 g, fibre 0.6 g and ash 0.4 g.
Eugenia stipitata	The fruit is edible, but because of its strong acidity it is not eaten directly but is popular as a strong or weak juice. A jelly can be made from the pulp and seed. However, excessive cooking destroys the attractive aroma and flavour. The dry weight of the fruit consists of 8-10.75% protein, 5-6.5% fibre, 69-72% other carbohydrates, 0.16-0.21 calcium, some phosphorus, potassium and magnesium and 10-12 ppm of zinc. In 100 g of fruit there are approximately 7.75 mg of vitamin A, 9.84 mg of vitamin B1 and 7.68 mg of vitamin C. The surprisingly high protein content presumably comes from the inclusion of the seeds. The fruit has some value as a source of vitamins and minerals.
Faidherbia albida	During the dry season, people eat the seeds.
Feijoa sellowiana	The fresh fruit is widely consumed because of its characteristic flavour and aroma, which are similar to pineapple. The fleshy petals of its beautiful flowers are also appreciated. In addition, there is a wide variety of industrialized products on the market in the form of paste, jam, crystallized fruits, preserves in syrup and liqueur. The flesh can be used in the soft drinks and ice-cream industries.
Feronia limonia	The rind must be cracked with a hammer. The scooped-out sticky pulp, is eaten raw with or without sugar, or is blended with coconut milk and palm-sugar syrup and drunk as a beverage, or frozen as an ice cream. It is also used in chutneys and for making jelly and jam. The pulp represents 36% of the whole fruit. The pectin content of the pulp is 3-5% (16% yield on dry-weight basis) and has potential for multiple uses. Seeds contain bland, non-bitter, oil high in unsaturated fatty acids.
Ficus glumosa	The figs are edible.
Ficus religiosa	Figs are consumed as famine food during periods of food
Ficus sycomorus	Mature fruits are eaten fresh, stewed, or dried and stored for later use. Fruit can also be used for the preparation of an alcoholic beverage. Leaves are used in soups and groundnut dishes. The bark is chewed together with kola nut. In Ghana, the wood ash is commonly used as a salt substitute.
Ficus thonningii	A good jam can be made from the ripe fruits.
Flacourtia indica	Fruit are edible and can be eaten raw or stewed. They have high potential for processing into jams and jellies. Ripe fruits are often dried and stored as food.
Fraxinus excelsior	The fruits were used for food, pickled and eaten with salads.
Garcinia gummi-gutta	The rinds of the ripe fruits are processed and used as a condiment in fish and prawn preparations to impart flavour and taste and to improve the keeping quality. In India, the dried seeds often yield a protein and fat-rich butter, popularly known as uppage tuppa Fruit juice or syrup is used as a coolant and helps reduce body fat. Fruit rind is marketed in large quantities, for example in India, export of over 50 tonnes (valued at 17 million rupees) have been recorded
Garcinia livingstonei	The juicy fruit pulp is acid-sweet, pleasant tasting and refreshing. Fruits are eaten raw or cooked with porridge.They are rich in carbohydrates (mainly sugars) and have moderate mineral content.
Garcinia mangostana	The best table fruits are those with the highest number of stigma lobes at the apex, for these have the highest number of fleshy segments and the fewest seeds. The numbers always correspond. Mangosteens are usually eaten fresh as dessert. The fleshy segments are sometimes canned, but they are said to lose their delicate flavor in canning, especially if pasteurized for as much as 10 minutes. Tests have shown that it is best to use a 40% syrup and sterilize for only 5 minutes. The more acid fruits are best for preserving. To make jam, in Malaysia, seedless segments are boiled with an equal amount of sugar and a few cloves for 15-20 minutes and then put into glass jars. In the Philippines, a preserve is made by boiling the segments in brown sugar, and the seeds may be included to enrich the flavour. The seeds are sometimes eaten alone after boiling or roasting. The rind is rich in pectin. After treatment with 6% sodium chloride to eliminate astringency, the rind is made into a purplish jelly.
Garcinia quaesita	The edible fruits have a distinctive sweet acid taste. Dried fruits of are widely used as a spice in the preparation of fish curries. The dried rind is a condiment especially in Sri Lanka, India and Malabar. It is used as a metabolic regulator (against obesity).
Genipa americana	The species is mainly grown for its fruits, a popular source of beverages. The pulp from mature fruits is cooked with sugar to produce syrup used for various beverages and deserts. It is a common practice in Puerto Rico to cut up the fruits, steep them in water until there is a little fermentation and then add flavoring and drink. As an edible fruit, it is rated low. The values for the edible portion (70%) of the fruit contains about 0.51% proteins, 11.21% carbohydrates, 4.30% sugar and 0.63%.malic acid.
Gevuina avellana	The fruit pulp and kernel are edible. The kernel is similar to hazelnut (Corylus avellana) in appearance and flavour and is eaten fresh or roasted. The protein concentration after oil extraction has been found to be 16 %. Of the 18 amino acids found in the flour, glutamic acid, followed by aspartic acid and arginine, are present in the greatest concentrations; lysine is the only limiting essential amino acid when compared with the FAO/WHO standards. Coupled with its low fat and high fibre content, gevuina flour has prospects as a health food. The whole nut is processed into a gevuina butter paste of high nutritional value, which can be at par with peanut butter.
Ginkgo biloba	Various foods and drinks are made from the fruits, seeds and leaves. The seeds may be roasted and are considered a great delicacy. Seeds are high in starch, but low in protein and oil.
Gleditsia triacanthos	Seeds have been roasted and used as a coffee substitute.
Gliricidia sepium	Flowers can be fried and eaten.
Gmelina arborea	The fruit of G. arborea is edible.
Gnetum africanum	The leaves of this species are edible, as are those of other American and Asian Gnetum species. G. africanum holds an important place in the diets of many people in central Africa. In the Congo Gnetum consumption has been evaluated at 2g /capita. Women play a great role in the gathering and selling of the much relished leaves all year round. Commerce in Gnetum has increased considerably. A company, 'Paysans Centrafricains' has exported leaves to Europe particularly France and Belgium. It is a significant source of protein (16.5% dry wt.) carbohydrates (70.6% dry wt.), essential amino acids (isoleucine, leucine, lysine, methionine, phenylalanine, threonine, tryptophan and valine), non essential amino acids (aspartic acid, serine, glutamic acid, proline,glycine, alanine, cysteine, tyrosine histidine and arginine) and mineral constituents i.e. macro and micro-elements (7.0% dry wt.). It can be eaten raw, but is generally added to meat and fish dishes after cooking time. The fruit and seeds are edible.
Gnetum costatum	Fruits, often with the leaves and inflorescences (both male and female) are boiled with other vegetables together in one pot and served. The fruits require a longer time to boil than those of G. gnemon in order to remove the bitter taste. Coconut milk is normally added to improve the taste. The kernels, leaves and inflorescences contain starch (40-45%) and protein (8-10%).
Gnetum gnemon	The nutritious seeds are consumed as a snack called emping, and the young leaves, flowers and fruits are used as vegetables; eaten either raw, boiled or roasted. The seed is cooked or preserved as pounded flat cakes from which crispy snacks can be made. An active trade in the seeds exists and small to medium size emping industries exist in Indonesia, specifically in west Java, central Java and northern Sumatra.
Gonystylus bancanus	The fruits and leaves provide food for wild animals such as swamp monkeys
Grewia asiatica	The ripe fruits are eaten as a dessert. Their taste and flavour are very much liked and they fetch high prices. A refreshing drink prepared from the juice, commonly known as phalsa syrup, is considered a delicacy in northern India, throughout the hot summer months. The mucilaginous extract of the bark obtained after pounding in water is used to clarify sugarcane juice during the preparation of ‘gur’, the traditional brown sugar made in India.
Grewia bicolor	Fruits edible, sweetish, but also astringent. The pulp is eaten fresh or dried and juice is drunk fresh. A mixture of the fruit is used to coat leather bottles containing new butter to improve flavour. Mucilaginous leaves used as binding agents for sauces. Fibres used to make ‘lalo’ a glutinant for giving couscous a smooth consistency. Bark is essential in brewing of ‘dolo’ in Burkina Faso, it cleans and removes bitterness.
Grewia optiva	The ripe fruits are edible. Raw or cooked, it has a pleasant acid taste.
Grewia tenax	The fruits consumed by man and animals contain a large amount of iron and can be made into a refreshing drink. Fruit storage can be extended by drying. The dead leaves are eaten, but only while they remain on the plant.
Grewia villosa	The fruit may be eaten, but is not actively sought after, although it may be found in some local markets, for instance in the Sudan, as a substitute for G. tenax.
Guazuma ulmifolia	The seeds are edible, fresh or cooked.
Hevea brasiliensis	Although poisonous, seeds of rubber can be eaten as a famine food after processing, which involves prolonged soaking or boiling to remove the cyanic poisons. Some of the denser wild stands of rubber in the Amazon are said to be due to artificial enrichment by indigenous peoples to increase food supply. Seeds contain 40-50% oil, which dries well and is suitable for use as food and for technical purposes.
Hibiscus sabdariffa	Source of a red beverage known as ‘jamaica’ in Mexico. Calyx, called karkade in Switzerland, is used in jams, jellies, sauces, and wines. In the west Indies and elsewhere in the tropics the fleshy calyces are used fresh for making roselle wine, jelly, syrup, gelatin, refreshing beverages, pudding, and cakes, and dried roselle is used for tea, jelly, marmalade, ices, ice-cream, sherbets, butter, pies, sauces, tarts, and other desserts. Tender leaves and stalks are eaten as salad and a pot-herb. The leaves are used for seasoning curries and also consumed as vegetable.
Hippophae rhamnoides	The fruit is edible and has a tart, bittersweet taste. Sea buckthorn fruit is rich in vitamins C, E, K, B1 and B2, as well as niacinamide, pantothenic acid, carotenoids and other substances such as oil, sugar, malic acid, amino acids and pectin. The vitamin C content of the Chinese sea buckthorn subsp. sinensis fruit can be as high as 1253 mg/100 g-1. In China, peasants have become prosperous by collecting and processing the fruit. Hippophaë leaves also contain various nutritious substances and minerals. A nutritious herbal tea, (shaji tea) high in vitamin C and trace elements is made from hand picked, young and tender leaves of H. rhamnoides.
Hymenaea courbaril	Seed pods contain an edible powdery pulp. This pulp contains 3.2% sugar, 1.1% fat, and 35.8% crude fibre. It has its own peculiar smell and sweet flavour, slightly reminiscent of bananas, and is generally considered pleasant but not very attractive. The texture is that of dry flour turning to a paste in the mouth, and some people find this unpleasant. It is very dry and largely starchy, so it is a good source of calories. Jatoba bark tea is a quite popular drink for lumberjacks working in the forests in Brazil, because it is a natural energy tonic.
Hymenocardia acida	The sour fruits are relished by children.
Hyphaene thebaica	The covering of the fruit is edible and can either be pounded to form a powder or cut off in slices; the powder is often dried then added to food as a flavouring agent. Young shoots produce tasty palm cabbage; the hypocotyl is edible, and so are the immature seeds if well prepared.
Illicium verum	Fruits and seeds are valued as a spice used in cooking.
Inga edulis	The large fruit is popular in all the regions where I. edulis is grown. In Bolivia, Brazil, Costa Rica and Ecuador, they are sold in the marketplace.
Inga vera	Seeds of this and many other species of Inga are enclosed in sugary edible pulp.
Intsia bijuga	The seeds can be eaten after careful preparation, soaked in salt water for 3-4 days and then boiled.
Irvingia gabonensis	Fruit pulp is palatable and can be used for a fruit drink and for jam production. The kernel can be processed into flour by extraction, drying and grinding. The pounded seed is added to meat and various vegetable dishes as a sauce. Margarine and cooking oil can be obtained from the kernels.
Irvingia wombolu	The seeds are collected and their cotyledons grilled or dried in the sun, pounded then used in preparation of a local dish 'gumbo'. The mesocarp is inedible. I. wombolu seeds give a more mucilaginous texture to food, this attribute makes the seeds command a higher market price. Overcooking causes the loss of sliminess. The sauce keeps for several days without refrigeration. The dried kernel can be stored for up to a year, as can the paste if it is thoroughly dried in the sun.
Jatropha curcas	In Guinea, ashes from the roots and branches are used as cooking salt. Young leaves may be safely eaten when steamed or stewed. Cooked nuts are eaten in certain regions of Mexico
Kigelia pinnata	Ripe fruits are inedible, although slices of baked fruit are added to beer to aid in fermentation of local honey beer, for example throughout East Africa. In times of food shortage, the seeds are roasted in hot ashes and eaten.
Lansium domesticum	The peel of the langsat is easily removed and the flesh is commonly eaten out-of-hand or served as dessert, and may be cooked in various ways. Varieties with much latex are best dipped into boiling water to eliminate the gumminess before peeling. The peeled, seedless or seeded fruits are canned in syrup or sometimes candied.
Leucaena collinsii	Trees of ssp. are cultivated for pod production. The unripe seeds are consumed locally and the pods marketed in regional markets in Guatemala and Mexico.
Leucaena esculenta	In the trees native region, the pods, seeds, and young leaves are gathered from wild populations. The immature pods, leaf and flower buds are edible. They are the traditional greens of the indigenous people of Mexico. They are gathered from June to September. Galls frequently develop on leaves and pods, these are consumed raw, roasted or boiled. Immature seeds are the products most consumed and are either eaten raw, roasted, milled and added to traditional sauces, or cooked in stews. Seeds are gathered in from November to February, when they are still immature. They may be consumed fresh or ground into a paste and sun dried for long term storage. They are also stored after being dried and salted.
Leucaena leucocephala	Pods, seeds and leaf tips have been used as food, although mimosine toxicity makes this practice risky. In Indonesia, a food called ‘tempe lamtoro’ is made of fermented leucaena seeds. Seeds can also be prepared as a coffee substitute.
Leucaena pallida	L. pallida is extensively cultivated for its edible pods and seeds. It is valued because it produces unripe pods earlier than L. esculenta, therefore extending the overall production period. Unripe pods, seeds and flower head buds are harvested and consumed locally as well as being transported to local and regional markets.
Leucaena trichandra	The unripe pods, seeds and flower buds are eaten in parts of southern Mexico; mature seeds are harvested and occasionally marketed from July to September.
Litchi chinensis	The juicy aril is the edible part of the lychee. It may be eaten fresh or juiced, preserved in syrup and canned, dried or frozen. Lychee nuts are fruit that has been dried, either artificially or in the sun. The food value of lychee lies in its sugar content, which ranges from 7 to 21%, depending on climate and cultivar. Fruit also contains about 0.7% protein, 0.3% fat, 0.7% minerals (particularly calcium and phosphorus) and is a reasonable source of vitamins C (64 mg/100 g pulp), A, B1 and B2. The strong appeal of lychee lies in the exquisite aroma of the fruit.
Macadamia integrifolia	The fine, crunchy texture, rich cream colour and delicate flavour make the macadamia nut one of the finest dessert nuts. The eating quality of the nut is enhanced by lightly roasting it in coconut oil and salting. Raw kernels are also popular alone or in a wide range of confectionery and processed foods. The quality of the kernel is related to its oil content and composition. Nuts are mature when the kernels accumulate 72% or more oil, as determined by specific gravity. Kernels also contain 10% carbohydrates; 9.2% protein, which is low in methionine; 0.7% minerals, particularly potassium;, and niacin, thiamine and riboflavin.
Macadamia tetraphylla	Raw kernels (macadamia nuts) are used either alone or in a wide range of confectionery and processed foods. Macadamia oil is also produced. Hawaii dominates the macadamia industry followed by Australia and Costa Rica. The nuts have an excellent flavour, containing up to 76% colorless oil, suitable for human food; the residual cake, after crushing for oil, contains 35-36 % protein. The nut has no starch. Fancy pastries, candies and ice cream, have been made from it. It has the advantage of retaining texture and flavour without becoming stale when used this way.
Macaranga tanarius	In Sumatra, fruit are added to palm juice when it is boiled down into crystals, improving the quality of the sugar produced.
Madhuca latifolia	The sweet, fleshy corolla is eaten fresh or dried, powdered and cooked with flour. The fruit contains valuable oil that is sometimes used for cooking by the locals. Outer fruit coat is eaten as a vegetable and the fleshy cotyledons are dried and ground into a meal. Ripe fruits are used for fermenting liquor.
Mallotus philippensis	Kamala also serves as a preservative for vegetable oils and dairy products. Kamala also recorded to be used as a dye for food-stuffs and beverages, which seems unlikely because it is generally known as a purgative.
Malpighia glabra	The sour fruits are eaten fresh, but more often preserved with sugar, e.g. in the form of jam. The edible pulp represents about half of the fruit weight and contains per 100 g: water 82-91 g, protein 0.7-1.8 g, fat 0.1-0.2 g, carbohydrates 7-14 g, fibre 0.6-1.2 g, ash 0.8 g. The energy value is 247 kJ per 100 g. The fruit -particularly when immature- is one of the richest sources of vitamin C, containing up to 4.7 g per 100 g edible portion. Juice is used commercially to enrich other fruit juices low in vitamin C. Canned juice and frozen fruit are exported to the United States, where they are used to enrich fruit preserves and are marketed as baby foods.
Mammea africana	Its fruits are edible. When they soften, the fruits are sliced open and the flesh consumed, leaving the seed(s) and the skin. It has a good flavour, but sometimes quite acidic. Some trees produce sweet, less acidic fruit, while others, sour, acidic fruits.
Mammea americana	The fruit may be eaten fresh or made into preserves and is used as filler for products made of other fruits. Slightly under-ripe fruits, rich in pectin, are made into jelly.
Mangifera caesia	The juicy, sweetish-sour binjai fruit can be eaten fresh when ripe. The 'wani' form, which is mainly found in Bali but also in East Kalimantan, is much liked this way and fetches a high price in local markets, as the fruit is palatable, juicy and sweet, almost fibreless, the foetid rank smell being completely absent. It is excellent for making creamy juices. Binjai is often used to prepare a spice based on chillies ('sambal') which is eaten with river fish. In some areas the flesh of ripe fruit is pickled and preserved with salt in jars, to be able to make this sambal when there is no fresh fruit. About 65% of the binjai fruit is edible. Per 100 g edible portion the constituents are: water 86.5 g, protein 1 g, fat 0.2 g, carbohydrates including fibre 11.9 g, ash 0.4 g, thiamine 0.08 mg, beta-carotene equivalent 0.005 mg and vitamin C 58 mg. The energy value is 200 kJ/100 g.
Mangifera foetida	Fresh bachang fruit contain an irritant juice which may inflame the lips and mouth. At maturity the irritant juice is restricted to the skin, so that the ripe fruit can be eaten fresh if it is peeled fairly thick. It is a rather savoury fruit, in spite of its turpentine smell and the taste sometimes is likened to durian, but it is not generally valued as a table fruit. Unripe fruit, washed in salted water and sliced is used in vegetable salads ('rujak') and in a sour pickle ('asinan'). In Borneo, especially in East Kalimantan, the fruit commonly replaces tamarind as an acid ingredient in the preparation of sambal. In Malaysia it is used to make chutneys as well as pickles. The edible portion of M. foetida represents 65% of fruit weight. Per 100 g edible portion the flesh contains: water 72.5 g, protein 1.4 g, carbohydrates 25.4 g, calcium 21 mg, phosphorus 15 mg, thiamine 0.03 mg, beta-carotene equivalent 0.218 mg and vitamin C 56 mg.
Mangifera indica	Mango is cultivated for the fruit, which can be eaten in 3 distinct ways, depending largely on the cultivar: unripe (mature green, very popular in Thailand and the Philippines), ripe (the common way to enjoy mango throughout the world), and processed (at various stages of maturity, in the form of pickles or chutneys, dried slices, canned slices in syrup, juice and puree or paste). The fruit is surrounded by golden, juicy flesh, rich in vitamins A and C. The green fruit is also used to flavour fish and meat dishes in the same way as tamarind and other sour fruits. In India, the kernels are important as a famine food, but the astringency has to be removed by boiling, roasting and soaking them for a long time. Young leaves are cooked as a vegetable.
Mangifera odorata	The kuwini is a popular fruit, having local economic significance in areas where Mangifera indica L. cannot be grown satisfactorily because the climate is very wet. The fruits, especially those that are less fibrous and smell less strongly, are much appreciated as table fruit. They must be peeled thick because of the presence of an acrid juice in the skin, which can also be reduced by steeping in diluted lime-water before eating. They are also used for making chutney and for pickles with salt. In Java a kind of flour is made of the seed kernels and used in the preparation of delicacies such as 'dodol' (based on glutinous rice) and 'jenang pelok' (a thick pappy preparation from Curcuma rhizomes). About 70% of the fruit is edible. Per 100 g edible portion the fruit contains: water 80 g, protein 0.9 g, fat 0.1 g, carbohydrates including fibre 18.5 g, ash 0.6 g, beta-carotene equivalent 0.36 mg, thiamine 0.04 mg, riboflavin 0.06 mg, niacin 0.7 mg and vitamin C 13 mg. The energy value is 290 kJ/100 g.
Manihot glaziovii	The leaves yield a white plastic substance, which is not rubber. Hydrocyanic acid is also produced in them, but this is dissipated by heat and they are eaten cooked as a vegetable in Gabon and in East Africa. The root is rich in starch but it is hard and woody, and also produces hydrocyanic acid. It is eaten in times of food scarcity.
Manilkara zapota	M. zapota is mainly cultivated for its fruit, which is highly prized and considered one of the best in Central America. It is eaten raw or made into jam, preferably when slightly overripe, and in Cuba and Brazil it is often made into a sherbet. The fruit keeps for about 6 weeks in a refrigerator at around 0 deg. C. The juice may be boiled into syrup or fermented into vinegar.
Metroxylon sagu	The boles of sago palm have always been used to obtain starch as a staple food for humans. Hot water is poured over the slightly sour wet starch and stirred. The resulting gluelike mass is eaten with fish and vegetable dishes, for example. The growing point and the young leaves around it may be used as a vegetable, the palm heart or cabbage. Grubs, especially of Rhynchosporus spp., may grow in decaying trunks, and sago growers consider them a delicacy.
Morinda citrifolia	Despite the smell of putrid cheese when ripe, the fruits are eaten raw or prepared, as are the leaves. The nutritional value of the fruit and leaves is considerable. The leaves are a rich source of vitamin A.
Moringa oleifera	The leaves, a good source of protein, vitamins A, B and C and minerals such as calcium and iron, are used as a spinach equivalent. They are an excellent source of the sulphur-containing amino acids methionine and cystine, which are often in short supply. Young plants are eaten as a tender vegetable and the taproots as an alternative for horseradish. Young pods are edible and reportedly have a taste reminiscent of asparagus. The green peas and surrounding white material can be removed from larger pods and cooked in various ways. Seeds from mature pods (which can be 40-50 cm long) can be browned in a skillet, mashed and placed in boiling water, which causes an excellent cooking or lubricating oil to float to the surface. The pleasantly flavoured edible oil, resembling olive oil, is an excellent salad oil. The flowers can be eaten or used to make a tea.
Moringa stenopetala	The leaves and fruits are eaten as vegetables and are rich in proteins, calcium, iron, phosphorous as well as vitamins A and C.
Morus alba	Leaves are highly nutritious and contain vitamins B complex (except B12), C (200-300 mg/100 g), D and flavonols. They are sometimes eaten as a vegetable; fruit is eaten fresh or made into juice and stews.
Morus nigra	The purple-black berries are large and juicy, with a good balance of sweetness and tartness that makes them the best-flavoured species of the genus. The ripe fruit contains about 9% sugar, with malic and citric acid. Berries can be eaten raw or dried, or used in pies, tarts, puddings, conserves, jams, or sweetened and pureed as a sauce; slightly unripe fruit is best for pies and tarts. Mulberries blend well with other fruit, especially pears and apples. The fruit is sometimes pounded to a fine powder and mixed with the flour for bread.
Myrianthus arboreus	The sweet pulp around the seeds is edible and the young leaves are eaten as a vegetable.
Myristica fragrans	Nutmeg is a mild, delicious baking spice with a sweet smell commonly added to sausages, meats, fish, soups, fruit pies, eggnog, puddings, vegetables and cakes, biscuits, custards, buns etc. It tastes very good in drinks like tea and soft drinks or mixed in milk and alcohol. Nutmeg is more pungent and sweeter than mace. The distinctive flavors are due to volatile oils, present in both tissues.
Nauclea diderrichii	Used in palm soup in Ghana.
Nauclea orientalis	The fruit is edible but bitter tasting, eaten by the Aboriginal people of Australia.
Nephelium lappaceum	The trees are cultivated for their very popular fruit. The usually juicy sarcotesta around the seed is eaten. The sweet-tasting fruits are consumed fresh, the more sour ones are eaten stewed. The sarcotesta can be canned or used in jam, but loses much of its flavour. Seeds are edible when roasted, they are bitter and said to be narcotic. Edible tallow similar to cacao butter, with a high level of arachidic acid, can be rendered from the seeds. The colourful fruits are frequently used in displays with flower and fruit arrangements.
Nephelium ramboutan-ake	The fruits are edible. The fruit of N. ramboutan-ake contains per 100 g edible portion: water 85 g, protein 0.8 g, fat 0.6 g, carbohydrates 13 g, fibre 0.1 g and ash 0.4 g.
Olea europaea ssp. africana	The main olive products are olive oil and edible olives. The fleshy, oil-bearing mesocarp used in commercial olive growing is absent in the much smaller fruits of O. europaea ssp. africana.
Olneya tesota	Fresh, uncooked seeds have a taste similar to soybeans. The native Seri Indians of Sonora, Mexico, cooked the seeds in water, emptied the water and then cooked the seeds a second time in fresh water to remove an unpleasant smell. The cooked seeds are eaten whole, or ground and salted. Roasted seeds have been used as a substitute for coffee.
Opuntia ficus-indica	The pricky pear fruit ranges in flavour from sour to very sweet. The fruit, known as tuna in spanish and sabra in arabic, is eaten throughout Latin America, the Mediterranean and the middle east. There is commercial tuna production in Italy, Spain, Sicily, Tunisia, Mexico and south America, especially Chile. The tender young pads (Nopalitos) are eaten as a vegetable particularly during the lent season.
Orbignya phalerata	The pulp and seed are eaten fresh. The extracted oil from the nut is similar to coconut or oil palm, with low yield, for the oil industry. Refined oil is used for margarine production and general food purposes. The grounded mesocarp or pulp is a source of starch for producing alcohol. The terminal bud is edible, but more often it is tapped, in lieu of the inflorescence for its multiple purpose sap. The larvae of the bruchid beetle (Pachymerus nuclearum and Carybruchus lipismatus). This beetle is a natural predator of the fruit and its larvae enter the fruit through its germination pores, usually after abcission. The larvae grow and develop within the fruit's seed chambers, assimilating oil and protein. Regional peasants eat the larvae (tapu'a), which are extracted in the same manner as kernels, by cracking open the fruit and picking them out of the chambers. Grubs are usually stir-fried with manioc flour, and taste a bit like bacon.
Osyris compressa	The fruits are edible and were an important food of the early inhabitants of the South African Cape. The fleshy part could also be compressed and stored for lean times. The bark when boiled produces a dark coloured solution which was used to flavour tea.
Osyris lanceolata	Roots and bark are used for tea and as a tonic in soup. Fruits are edible. Ripe fruits are eaten raw, with the seed discarded; only as an emergency food, especially by children or herdsmen.
Pachystela msolo	The fruit pulp of P. msolo is edible.
Parinari curatellifolia	The fruit has a pleasant tasting, yellow flesh of which 88.2% is carbohydrate; it contains vitamin C. The fruit may be eaten raw or made into a porridge. A delicious syrup is prepared from it that provides the basis of a refreshing, non-alcoholic drink. Seeds are pounded and used for making soup; they can also be eaten and make a passable substitute for almonds.
Parkia biglobosa	Seeds are fermented to make dawadawa, a black, strong-smelling, tasty food high in protein. Dried fermented seeds keep for more than a year in traditional earthenware pots without refrigeration, and small amounts are crumbled during cooking into traditional soups and stews that are usually eaten with sorghum- or millet-based dumplings and porridges. Because of the savoury taste and the high protein and fat values of the seed, it is sometimes described as a meat or cheese substitute, but it is not usually eaten in large amounts. Dawadawa is rich in protein, lipids and vitamin B2. Parinari curatellifolia is deficient in the amino acids methionine, cystine and trytophan, but fermented beans are rich in lysine. The fat in the beans is nutritionally useful (approximately 60% is unsaturated). Seeds are used as a coffee substitute. Seeds are embedded in a mealy pulp sometimes called dozim, that is high in energy value. It contains up to 29% crude protein and up to 60% saccharose, is rich in vitamin C and high in oil content. The pulp is eaten raw or made into a refreshing drink and is used as a sweetener. For storage, it is pressed into a cake. The fruit provides emergency food during severe droughts. Young pods are sometimes roasted on embers and eaten. Leaves are edible but not commonly eaten. The leaves are mixed with cereal flour and eaten or fermented into balls and used in sauces.
Parkia speciosa	Seeds are sometimes used as a vegetable; they have a garlic flavour and a very strong odour. Due to the foul smell of the green seeds, they are sometimes referred to as the ‘evil-smelling bean’. Half-ripe pods are pickled in salt. The young leaves and fresh parts of the flower stalks can also be eaten raw.
Parkinsonia aculeata	The edible fruit pulp is sweet (up to 60% sugar). Its seeds have in the past been used in Mexico for food.
Paullinia cupana	Guarana is used mainly to produce soft drinks. Seeds contain 2.7-5.8 % caffeine as well as theophylline and theobromine. Seeds are roasted and their seed coat removed; this is marketed as guarana en rama (raw guarana). Seeds are usually immersed in water to form a paste. From this are made sticks, which, after being dried over a slow fire and smoked for one month, are marketed. The traditional way of preparing the drink consists of grating part of the stick in water to produce an infusion. The guarana carbonated drinks industry began in 1907 and the product became Brazil's national drink during the 1940s. Nowadays, guarana is marketed as sticks and soluble or insoluble powder and is used industrially for the production of carbonated drinks, syrups and herbalists' products.
Pentaclethra macroloba	The seeds are edible and also produce a cooking oil (owala oil), widely used in Africa. Seeds contain 45-48% lipid, 27-28% protein and 12-14% carbohydrates
Pentaclethra macrophylla	P. macrophylla is planted on the fringes of compound farms mainly for its edible seed and is a major component of this agroforestry system.
Persea americana	The tree is grown for its nutritious fruit that has long been important in the diets of the people of Central America. Consumption is most often as an uncooked savoury dish mixed with herbs and/or spices, as an ingredient of vegetable salads, or as a sweetened dessert. However, its texture and colour can be used to enhance the presentation and consumption of many foods. Cooking impairs flavour and appearance of avocados. The flesh represents 65-75% of the total fruit weight. The contents vary widely in different cultivars. The approximate content per 100 g of edible portion are: water 65-86 g, protein 1-4 g (unusually high for fruit), fat 5.8-23 g (largely mono-saturated and documented as an anti-cholesterol agent), carbohydrates 3.4-5.7 g (of which sugars only 1 g), iron 0.8-1 g, vitamin A and vitamin B-complex 1.5-3.2 mg. The energy value is 600-800 kJ/100 g. The high oil content of the mature fruit gives the flesh a buttery texture which is neither acid nor sweet. The easily digestible flesh is rich in iron and vitamins A and B; providing a highly nutritious solid food, even for infants.
Phoenix dactylifera	The most important use of P. dactylifera is for its fruit, which forms the staple diet of many people in Africa and the Middle East and is as well a cash crop for export. The seeds are roasted and kernels ground as a coffee substitute. Terminal bud leaves are eaten as a vegetable. The sap can be boiled into unrefined sugar.
Phoenix reclinata	Buds may be eaten raw or cooked as a vegetable. The heart of the crown is eaten, and the fruit is also edible.
Phyllanthus acidus	The mature sour fruits may be eaten fresh but usually they are sprinkled with salt to neutralize the acidity. Used in cooking to flavor dishes, the fruits are excellent raw materials for processing into pickle and sweetened dried fruits; fruit juice is used in cold drinks and fruit to make vinegar. In Malaysia, ripe and unripe fruit are served as a relish, syrup or sweet preserve. The fruits, combined with other fruits are used in chutney or jam, because of their setting properties. Young leaves are cooked as a vegetable in Indonesia, Thailand and India.
Piliostigma malabaricum	The young leaves are used as a condiment. They are cooked together with fish or meat to give the soup a good smell and flavour. The seeds of alibangbang are rich in minerals like Ca, Mg and Fe. Glutelins (45%) constituted the major seed protein fraction, followed by globulins which accounted for about 34%. The amino acids tyrosine and phenylalanine are fairly high. The major seed antinutritional substances are phenols, tannins, L-DOPA and haemagglutinins.
Piliostigma thonningii	The leaves are edible and chewed to relieve thirst. The fruit and seeds are also edible.
Pinus wallichiana	Seed has a very resinous flavour and so is not much relished, honeydew from the aphid-infested leaves is eaten as a manna. There are reports that a manna-like substance that exudes from the leaves and twigs is eaten or used like honey. A vanillin flavouring is obtained as a by-product of other resins that are released from the pulpwood.
Pithecellobium dulce	Pods contain a pulp that is variously sweet and acid, commonly white but also red. The seed and pulp are made into a sweet drink similar to lemonade and also eaten roasted or fresh. The seeds are used fresh in curries in India. In Mexico, Cuba and Thailand, the pods are harvested and are customary sold on roadside stands.
Podocarpus falcatus	The ripe fruit is edible but very resinous.
Pometia pinnata	The tree is sometimes cultivated for its fruits which can have a thick and sweet-tasting arillode. The seeds are also edible.
Pouteria campechiana	The fruit is edible, but not highly regarded; as it is not crispy and juicy like so many other fruits. Eaten with salt, pepper and lime or lemon juice or mayonnaise, either fresh or after light baking. It has been often likened in texture to the yolk of a hard-boiled egg. The pureed flesh may be used in custards or added to ice cream mix just before freezing. A rich milkshake, or "eggfruit nog", is made by combining ripe canistel pulp, milk, sugar, vanilla, nutmeg or other seasoning in an electric blender. Others prepare canistel pancakes, cupcakes, jam, and marmalade", pie "butter" by beating the ripe pulp in an electric blender, adding sugar, and cooking to a paste, with or without lemon juice. The fruit could also be dehydrated and reduced to a nutritious powder as is being done with the lucmo (q.v.) and this might well have commercial use in pudding mixes. Canistels are rich in niacin and carotene (provitamin A) and have a fair level of ascorbic acid. Chemical analyses show that the canistel excels the glamorized carambola (Averrhoa carambola L.) in every respect except in moisture and fiber content, and riboflavin.
Pouteria sapota	The mamey sapote is usually eaten in preparations where the fresh or frozen pulp is mixed with other ingredients to make milkshakes or ice cream. It also may be eaten fresh directly from the fruit by cutting it lengthwise and removing the seed. It is also excellent for use in jellies, pastes, and conserves. The seed can be milled to prepare a bitter chocolate.
Prosopis africana	In many areas, the fermented seeds are used as a food condiment.
Prosopis alba	The pod can be eaten as a fresh fruit or conserved in its own sweet fresh juice. If the dry pod is ground, it gives a flour that can be mixed with a little water and eaten immediately. Pressing gives a commercial product for domestic and regional markets. Juice extracted with boiling water from fresh fruit can be added to corn flour to form a gruellike drink. A drink is also made from flour boiled with milk or water. The gum, which has a soft consistency and a sweet flavour, is used as candy.
Prosopis chilensis	The pods are eaten by the native people (Northern Argentina), especially as a ground flour.
Prosopis cineraria	P. cineraria pods are used as vegetable in the dried and green form in many parts of the Thar desert in India. During India's Rajputana famine (1868–69), many lives were spared, using the sweetish bark as a food. It was ground into flour and made into cakes.
Prosopis glandulosa	P. glandulosa pods were a primary food of the residents of the deserts of southwestern USA. Pods are quite sweet; the whole-pod composition is 80% carbohydrate, 13% protein, 25% fibre, and 3% fat. Unlike most beans, the pods are edible without cooking. They are still used as a food and beverage in Mexico. Pods could prove useful for production of flour, wine, tempeh and tofu products. Gum from the bark is edible.
Prosopis juliflora	A rich, delicious flour can be made from pulverized pods from which seeds have been removed. Cotyledons and embryos when pulverized yield a flour rich in protein and sugar appropriate for diabetic people. There are reports that P. juliflora pods are used in preparing bread, sweets, syrup and coffee. The pods must be processed to improve the flavour. Sugars and sweeteners can be produced from the pods.
Psidium guajava	The whole fruit is edible; flavour varies from very acid to sweet with the best fruit being both sweet and mildly acid. It has a pleasant aroma, is very high in vitamin C (10-2 000 mg/100 g of fruit), and a rich source of vitamin A and pectin (0.1-1.8%). Pectin content increases during ripening and declines rapidly in over-ripe fruit. Table varieties with good taste, large size and high pulp to seed ratio, have been developed for the fresh fruit market in many countries. Other varieties have been developed for the industrial purposes and the following wide variety of products are available: canned fruit or mesocarps in sweet syrup, puree, goiabada (a type of thick, sweet jam), jams and jellies, juices and nectars, ice cream and yoghurts. Guava paste, or guava cheese as known in the West Indies, is made by evaporating the pulp with sugar; it is eaten as a sweetmeat. A firm in the Philippines dehydrates slices of the outer, non-seeded part of the fruit to make a similar product. In some Asian countries such as Indonesia, the leaves are used in cooking.
Pterocarpus erinaceus	Leaves are edible, seeds also edible but need to be cooked properly to avoid emetic or intoxicating effects.
Pterocarpus indicus	The young leaves and flowers are said to be eaten and those who eat them probably concentrate such meals during the leaf flush and flowering periods.
Pterocarpus lucens	Fresh leaves are used for sauces and as a vegetable.
Pterocarpus santalinoides	The leaves are eaten as a vegetable.
Pterocarpus soyauxii	P. soyauxii leaves are eaten as vegetables and have a high ascorbic acid content even after cooking.
Pueraria montana	Kudzu tuber is esteemed for its fine starch, used especially in China, Japan and Papua New Guinea for sauces, soups, jelled salads, noodles, porridges, jelly puddings, confectionary and beverages. The young leaves, shoots and flowers may be consumed as a vegetable. Per 100 g, cooked leaves contain approximately water 89 g, protein 0.4 g, fat 0.1 g, carbohydrates 9.7 g, fibre 7.7 g and ash 0.8 g.
Punica granatum	The seeds have a fresh, sweet-sour, very pleasant taste, grenadine, a reduced juice from fresh pomegranate seeds, is common in Northern India for desserts, marinating and tenderizing meat due to its proteolytic enzymes. Dried pomegranate seeds, ‘anardana’, has culinary importance as spice for vegetable and legume dishes in Northern India. They impart a subtle, sweet-sour and tart flavour popular in Punjab and Gujrat. The edible fruit portion contains 10% sugars, 36.6 mg Vitamin C/100 ml of juice, 2.6% protein, 0.1% Phosphorous, 0.4% Potassium, 0.03%, 0.1% Calcium and 0.13% Magnesium.
Pyrus communis	The fruit is eaten fresh, in fruit salads, or more rarely, canned. Sometimes, they are dried or candied. They are also used in jams and jellies
Quercus glauca	Seeds, raw or cooked have a sweet taste. The seed can be dried, ground into a powder and used as a thickening in stews etc or mixed with cereals for making bread. If the seed contains bitter tannins, these can be leached out by thoroughly washing the seed in running water though many minerals will also be lost. Either the whole seed can be used or the seed can be dried and ground it into a powder. It can take several days or even weeks to properly leach whole seeds, one method was to wrap them in a cloth bag and place them in a stream. Leaching the powder is quicker. A simple taste test can tell when the tannin has been leached. The traditional method of preparing the seed was to bury it in boggy ground overwinter. The germinating seed was dug up in the spring when it would have lost most of its astringency. The leaves are cooked as a famine food. The roasted seed is a coffee substitute.
Quercus humboldtii	The acorns are nutritious but, unlike the white oaks, are bitter. They serve as an important food for wildlife. If it is to be used as human food, then the acorns should be boiled repeatedly to get rid of the bitterness as the natives Americans did.
Quercus semecarpifolia	Seeds can be dried, ground into a powder and used as a thickening in stews etc or mixed with cereals for making bread. The seed contains bitter tannins, these can be leached out by thoroughly washing the seed in running water though many minerals will also be lost. Either the whole seed can be used or the seed can be dried and ground it into a powder. It can take several days or even weeks to properly leach whole seeds, one method was to wrap them in a cloth bag and place them in a stream. Leaching the powder is quicker. A simple taste test can tell when the tannin has been leached. The traditional method of preparing the seed was to bury it in boggy ground over winter. The germinating seed was dug up in the spring when it would have lost most of its astringency.
Rhamnus prinoides	Fruits are edible.
Rhododendron arboreum	Flowers are sour-sweet and are eaten as pickles, although excess may cause intoxication. A sub-acidic jelly or preserve is made from the petals. The flower petals are eaten raw as a famine food in India.
Rhus natalensis	The sour tasting globose fruits have an edible pulp. The bark is made into tea and the roots are used in preparing soup. Tender leaves and shoots chewed as food.
Ricinodendron heudelotii	The seeds are edible but are not valued as food in all areas where it grows. The kernels can be eaten after boiling in water, or in sauce as in Cote d’Ivoire, or mixed with fish, meat or vegetables. In Gabon kernels are roasted and made into a paste.
Saba comorensis	The fruit pulp is edible, commonly found in market places. A refreshing sour drink can be made from the fruit. There is an export potential as the fruit does not rot easily.
Saba senegalensis	The fruits are tasty, sweet-sour, yellow pulped and quite popular, often appearing in local markets in its fruit season.
Salvadora oleoides	Fruits are sweet and edible. The pulp contains glucose, fructose and sucrose. It is a rich source of calcium containing about 15 times the amount of Ca present in wheat.
Salvadora persica	Fruits have a sweet, agreeable, aromatic, slightly pungent and peppery taste. They can be eaten raw, cooked, or dried and stored. Fruit with or without seeds is said to contain 1.7-1.86% sugars when ripe. Fermented drinks are also made from the fruit. The leaf is somewhat bitter and aromatic, with a taste likened to mustard. The leaves are also cooked as a sauce and eaten with couscous or as a green vegetable. Tender shoots, seeds and seed oil are also edible. Edible salts are obtained from ashes.
Sandoricum koetjape	The fruit is edible, being eaten fresh or processed into jam or chutney. The fruit is peeled, quartered and cooked in syrup to make delicious preserves.
Santalum album	Fruits are edible.
Santalum ellipticum	The seed kernels are edible (and some say tasty), although the scarcity of seeds and their high value for propagation makes their use as food somewhat inappropriate.
Santalum spicatum	The fruits and pods are gathered from the wild and eaten as food. Seed kernels of sandalwood may be eaten and have formed a valuable part of the traditional Aboriginal Australian diet. The kernels are very rich in a fixed oil (ca. 45-55%) and this oil is characterized by a high percentage of unusual acetylenic fatty acids. The seed cake contains approximately 50% crude protein and is potentially a nutritionally rich food item.
Sapindus mukorossi	The seed kernel cake of S. Mukorossi contains 32 % crude protein and 7.9 % total N. The protein is mainly of the globulin type. Aspartic acid, glutamic acid, lysine, serine, glycine, arginine, alanine, valine, leucine/isoleucine, proline and tryptophan have been identified. However, the kennels lack about 44 % of essential amino acids and are thus inadequate for human nutrition but industrial protein could be prepared from the globulin fraction.
Sarcocephalus latifolius	The fleshy fruits of S. latifolius are edible.
Schinus molle	While not considered poisonous, the berries are not normally eaten. In Mexico, the fruit is ground and mixed with other substances to form beverages. The seeds are sometimes used to adulterate pepper.
Schinus terebinthifolius	The fruits are highly appreciated as a condiment in Europe, where they are used as a substitute for black pepper (Piper nigrum).
Schinziophyton rautanenii	The fruit is edible and can be eaten fresh, dried or cooked and have a pleasant taste likened to that of plums. The fruit retains its flavour even when dry. The fruit is normally skinned after steaming in a pot with little water, then boiled in fresh water to separate the nuts. The fruit is used in making aromatic soups and sweet porridge, they can be dried and consumed as sweetmeats. During roasting direct contact of seeds with the fire coals is avoided by roasting in a sand heap. Fruit carbohydrate content is between 65-77%, fibre 2.5-3%, crude protein 6-9% and Ca levels are 85-100 mg/ 100 g. In the abscence of moisture fruits can remain edible for up to 8 months if left on ground where they fall.
Schizolobium parahybum	A number of amino acids are found in the seeds, however, a seed chymotrypsin inhibitor is also reported.
Sclerocarya birrea ssp. caffra	All parts of the fruit of S. birrea ssp. caffra are edible. The vitamin C content of the fruit is 54 mg/100 g, which is 2-3 times that of the orange. The seeds are high in fat (56-61%), protein (28-31%), citric acid (2.02 %), malic acids and sugar, phosphorus, magnesium, copper, zinc, thiamine and nicotinic acid. The pulp can be consumed raw or boiled into a thick, black consistency and used for sweetening porridge. The fruit is an excellent conserve and makes a delicious amber-coloured jelly. The flavour of S. birrea ssp. caffra has been described as pleasant, sour-sweet, guavalike and tart. The nuts, described as a delicacy, are commonly used to supplement the diet during winter or drought periods in countries such as Tanzania and Zambia, as the oil in the seed is rich in protein. Protein contents of 54-70% have been reported for de-fatted nuts. They are mixed with vegetables or meat or may be pounded and made into a cake before consumption.
Securidaca longepedunculata	Young leaves are eaten as a vegetable or in sauces.
Senna siamea	In Thailand, young fruits and leaves are eaten as a vegetable. During preparation the cooking liquid is replaced 3 times to remove toxins. In Sri Lanka, the flowers and young fruits are used in curries.
Senna singueana	Pods are edible raw or cooked, whereas leaves are eaten as a vegetable.
Sesbania bispinosa	The mature seeds of S. bispinosa are cooked and eaten by Indian tribal sects: the Katkharis and the Ghonds.
Sesbania grandiflora	Leaves, seeds, pods and flowers of S. grandiflora are edible. Flowers are the most widely used part, and white flowers are preferred to the red. In the Philippines, unopened white flowers are a common vegetable, steamed or cooked in soups and stews after the stamen and calyx have been removed. The raw flowers are eaten as salad in Thailand. Young leaves are also eaten, usually chopped fine and steamed, cooked or fried. Tender pods are eaten as string beans.
Sesbania macrantha	Seeds are eaten after removing the seed coat by roasting. This generally occurs in times of food scarcity.
Sesbania rostrata	The leaves are processed into leaf meal.
Sesbania sesban	S. sesban flowers are edible and are included perhaps as a decorative or festive ingredient in foods such as omelettes.
Shorea robusta	In India seeds are boiled into a porridge with flowers of Bassia latifolia and fruits of Dolichos biflorus. In Madras, India, seeds are ground into a coarse flour used to make bread, and the plant is used as a famine food. The chemical composition of the seeds consists of 10.8% water, 8% protein, 62.7% carbohydrate, 14.8% oil, 1.4% fibre and 2.3% ash. S. robusta butter, used in cooking, is derived from the seeds. A de-fatted kernel powder, popularly known as sal seed cake, contains about 50% starch, in addition to proteins, tannins and minerals. The physico-chemical property of the starch can be exploited for preparing canned food products.
Simaruba glauca	The edible parts of S. glauca are the fruit and the oil from its seed.
Simmondsia chinensis	Seeds are eaten raw or roasted by Indians. Since jojoba oil contains no cholesterol or triglycerides and is not broken down by normal metabolic pathways, it may become an important low-calorie oil for human consumption.
Spathodea campanulata	The seeds are edible and used in many parts of Africa.
Spondias mombin	The pulp of the fruit is sometimes eaten directly, especially when found in the forest, but is too acid to be considered attractive; it can also be boiled or dried. It is especially used for syrup, ice cream, drinks and jellies. Juices improve with keeping overnight as the mild astringency of the fresh fruit disappears. Fermented products are also good. About half of the fruit weight is pulp, which is 8% water, 10% sugars, 1-8% fibre, and 0.4% ash. The sugars give about 40 calories/100 g. The fruit is a good source of vitamins A and C; vitamin C quantities vary between 34 and 54 mg/g, and carotenoids are presumably present in reasonable concentrations. There is great variation in fruit quality from region to region, some being sweet and pleasant and others quite disagreeable in flavour. When fresh water is unavailable, water from the roots of S. mombin can be drunk. The shoot tastes like cassava and can be eaten raw or boiled. The seeds can also be eaten.
Spondias purpurea	The leaves, seeds and fruits are edible. The fruits have a flavour resembling that of plums. A high calorific value is recorded for the edible fruit portion,(74 kcal/100 g), this is principally due to ovo's high concentration of total carbohydrates (19.1%). Fructose, glucose and sucrose together account for 65% of the soluble matter. Unlike other fruits, ovo retains a fair amount of starch in its mesocarp.
Sterculia foetida	The seeds have a pleasant taste and are sometimes eaten. Edible oils are obtainable from the seed.
Sterculia urens	Trees exude gum karaya used in foodstuffs as emulsifiers, stabilizers and thickeners. Seeds are eaten after roasting. Seeds and young tender roots are eaten in times of famine.
Stereospermum kunthianum	Fruits are edible.
Strychnos cocculoides	Ripe fruit is eaten fresh or is used to prepare a sweet-sour non-alcoholic drink.
Strychnos henningsii	In East Africa S. henningsii is used in the preparation of fatty-meat and milk soups.
Strychnos innocua	The sweet-sour fruit pulp is edible.
Strychnos spinosa	The sweet-sour fruit pulp is edible but the seeds and unripe fruit are toxic; leaves are also eaten.
Styrax tonkinensis	Benzoin’s principal role in foods is as a flavouring agent in chocolate bars, ice cream, milk products, syrups and other products.
Syzygium aromaticum	The spice of commerce is the unopened flower bud on the terminal shoots of the twigs. Cloves are used in spice cookies and cakes. Much of the world crop is used in Indonesia for the extremely popular clove aromatized cigarettes, called "kreteks. India also consumes a considerable amount of clove.
Syzygium cordatum	The bitter-tasting fresh fruit is eaten raw or used to make an alcoholic drink. A good quality jelly can be cooked from the ripe fruit.
Syzygium cuminii	Ripe fruit is usually eaten fresh; it is juicy, almost odourless, with a pleasant, slightly bitter, astringent taste. A common practice in the Philippines as well as in India is to sprinkle the fruits with salt and shake them. They may also be made into jams, jellies, juice and puddings.
Syzygium guineense	The ripe, pleasant-flavoured fruits of S. guineense are gathered and eaten.
Syzygium jambos	Around the tropical world, rose apples are mostly eaten out-of-hand by children. They are seldom marketed. In the home, they are sometimes stewed with some sugar and served as dessert. Culinary experimenters have devised other modes of using the cup-like halved fruits. One stuffs them with a rice-and-meat mixture, covers them with a tomato sauce seasoned with minced garlic, and bakes them for about 20 minutes. Possible variations are limitless. The fruit is made into jam or jelly with lemon juice added, or more frequently preserved in combination with other fruits of more pronounced flavour. It is also made into a syrup for use as a sauce or to flavour cold drinks. In Jamaica, the halved or sliced fruits are candied by stewing them in very heavy sugar syrup with cinnamon.
Syzygium malaccense	The tree is grown for their fruit, which substitute for one another in the marketplace. Whereas S. malaccense can easily be recognized, it is not easy to distinguish between the various S. aqueum and S. samarangense fruits. The ripe fruit is sweet and is mainly eaten fresh. Malay apples are often stewed with other fruit to tone down the sour taste of the latter. The Malay apple is usually red with pink or white streaks; the flesh is thick, rather dry and scented, but often insipid. Eighty per cent or more of the fruit is edible. The composition of the species per 100 g edible portion is similar with S. samarangense: water more than 90%, protein 0.3 g, fat none, carbohydrates 3.9 g, fibre 1 g, vitamin A 253 IU, vitamin B1 and B2 traces, vitamin C 0.1 mg, energy value 80 kJ/100 g (analysis for S. samarangense in Thailand).
Syzygium samarangense	The tree is grown for their fruit, which substitute for one another in the marketplace. It is not easy to distinguish between the various S. aqueum and S. samarangense fruits. The ripe fruit is sweet and is mainly eaten fresh. In Indonesia wax jambu is used in fruit salads ('rujak') and they are also preserved by pickling ('asinan'). Eighty per cent or more of the fruit is edible. The composition the species per 100 g edible portion: water more than 90%, protein 0.3 g, fat none, carbohydrates 3.9 g, fibre 1 g, vitamin A 253 IU, vitamin B1 and B2 traces, vitamin C 0.1 mg, energy value 80 kJ/100 g (analysis for wax jambu in Thailand).
Tamarindus indica	The fruit pulp, mixed with a little salt, is a favourite ingredient of the curries and chutneys popular throughout India, though most of the tamarind imported into Europe today comes from the West Indies, where sugar is added as a preservative. When freshly prepared, the pulp is a light brown colour but darkens with time; it consists of 8-14% tartaric acid and potassium bitartrate, and 30-40% sugar. Acidity is caused by the tartaric acid, which on ripening does not disappear, but is matched more or less by increasing sugar levels. Hence tamarind is said to be simultaneously the most acid and the sweetest fruit. The ripe fruit of the sweet type is usually eaten fresh, whereas the fruits of sour types are made into juice, jam, syrup and candy. Fruit is marketed worldwide in sauces, syrups and processed foods. The juice is an ingredient of Worcestershire Sauce and has a high content of vitamin B (thiamine and niacin) as well as a small amount of carotene and vitamin C. The flowers, leaves and seeds can be eaten and are prepared in a variety of dishes. Tamarind seeds are also edible after soaking in water and boiling to remove the seed coat. Flour from the seed may be made into cake and bread. Roasted seeds are claimed to be superior to groundnuts in flavour.
Tarchonanthus camphoratus	Leaves used to prepare a beverage, smoked as tobacco or inhaled as snuff.
Taxus baccata	The red aril surrounding the seed can be eaten. In India, local people use the bark as a tea substitute.
Teclea nobilis	The fruit is edible.
Telfairia pedata	The seed is eaten raw or cooked and is rich in extractable oil (61%). Nuts are especially mentioned as source of food for women during the lactating period.
Terminalia bellirica	The kernels of the fruit can be eaten but are somewhat dangerous as they have a narcotic effect.
Terminalia catappa	The kernel can be eaten raw or roasted and has an almondlike taste. Sun-dried kernels yield 34-54% of a bland, yellow, semi-drying oil that is edible but becomes turbid on standing. The oil is mainly used in cooking. The flesh of the fruit is also edible but is often fibrous and not very tasty in spite of the pleasant smell.
Terminalia prunioides	The tree exudes edible gum.
Terminalia sericea	The plant produces an edible gum. During the rainy season, caterpillars feeding on the leaves of this shrub are an important source of food.
Tetrapleura tetraptera	The fruit pulp is rich in sugars and may be used in flavouring food.
Theobroma cacao	The cocoa bean, with up to 50% fat, is a valuable source of vegetable fat, cocoa butter. The residual cocoa powder is used in cakes, biscuits, drinking chocolate and other confectioneries.
Thespesia populnea	Young flower buds and leaves are eaten raw or fried in butter.
Toona ciliata	In Southeast Asia the leaves are used as a vegetable.
Treculia africana	The seeds are extracted after macerating the fruit in water and then ground to a meal, known as breadfruit flour, which can be used to produce a variety of baked foods. A non-alcoholic beverage, almond milk, can be prepared from powdered seeds, which is recommended as a breakfast drink in Nigeria. Seeds can be dried, fried or roasted and eaten, and an edible oil can be extracted from them. The grains have an excellent polyvalent dietetic value; the biological value of its proteins exceeds even that of soybeans. The flour can be made into bread, pasta, table oil, margarine and baby food.
Trema orientalis	The leaves and fruit are reported to be eaten in the Democratic Republic of Congo.
Trichilia emetica	A sweet, milky, potable liquid is extracted from the arils. The skinned seeds are also edible and are eaten raw or soaked in water and ground, the resultant liquid mixed with spinach dishes.
Uapaca kirkiana	U. kirkiana is highly regarded for its edible fruit. It contains 1.8 mg/g ascorbic acid and is used to prepare sweetmeats or jams. A seasoning for food is obtained from the wood ash. It is an important famine food.
Vangueria infausta	The fruits are eaten raw and the pulp sometimes soaked in water and then dried to use later. The pulp, when mixed with a little sugar and water, makes a good substitute for applesauce; it has a sweet and slightly sour taste. Each 100 g fresh fruit contain 3.7 g vitamin C, 1.4 g protein, 28 g carbohydrate, 28 mg sodium, 0.61 mg nicotinic acid and high levels of calcium and magnesium. Seeds can be eaten roasted.
Vangueria madagascariensis	The ripe fruit pulp is edible and has a pleasant chocolate-like flavour. The fruit is also used to add flavour to beer.
Vernonia amygdalina	Leaves, although rather bitter to taste, are eaten as raw vegetables. ‘Chewsticks’ from the roots and twigs are regarded as an appetizer.
Vitellaria paradoxa	Shea butter extracted from the nuts is one of the most affordable and widely used vegetable fats in the Sahel. Today, shea nuts are important internationally and are sold to European and Japanese food industries. The refined fat is sold as baking fat, margarine and other fatty spreads under various trade names and finds increasing use in various foodstuffs. Shea butter has a fatty composition similar to that of cocoa butter, so is often used as a substitute for cocoa, and in pastry because it makes a highly pliable dough. Traditionally prepared unpurified, shea butter is sold in ‘loaves’ in markets and, if properly prepared and wrapped in leaves, is resistant to oxidative rancidity and will keep for years if not exposed to air and heat. Nuts that have been cleaned and lightly sun dried without previous maceration yield a tasteless, odourless fat. Traditionally prepared shea butter, after refining, is also tasteless and odourless. The edible fruit pulp constitutes 50-80% of the whole fruit. It is allowed to become slightly overripe before being eaten raw; it can also be eaten lightly cooked. Children eat the nuts raw, while the flowers are made into fritters by some ethnic groups. Caterpillars of Cirina butyrospermii A. Vuilet, which feed exclusively on the leaves of the shea-butter tree, are dried and sold in markets in Nigeria and Senegal. They are rich in protein and sometimes eaten in a sauce.
Vitex doniana	The fruit is sweet and tastes like prunes; it is occasionally sold. It contains vitamins A and B and can be made into a jam. Leaves are often used as a herb for cooking.
Vitex keniensis	The fruit is edible but usually eaten only in an emergency.
Vitex negundo	Seeds are reported to be eaten after boiling, for instance in the Philippines.
Vitex payos	The ripe fruit contains a black, mealy and sweet pulp.
Warburgia salutaris	Fresh or dried leaves can be used in various dishes or tea to add an agreeable aroma and, peppery taste.
Warburgia stuhlmannii	Bark, leaves and fruit are hot to the taste. The bark is traditionally used as a spice.
Warburgia ugandensis	Fruit edible; all parts have a hot peppery taste. The leaves and seeds are sometimes used to add flavour to curries.
Wrightia tinctoria	The flowers, leaves, fruits and seeds may be eaten as vegetables after a thorough washing
Ximenia americana	The fruits, as well as being pleasant to eat raw, can be used to make juice, jams and jellies, or an intoxicating drink. The pulp of seed and fruit contains hydrocyanic acid, and it is advisable not to chew the seed. Kernel oil is used as a vegetable butter and as a ghee substitute. Young leaves are edible after thorough cooking.
Ximenia caffra	The fruits are eaten raw, though bitter or sour, but refreshing and has an almond-like scent. Alternatively the fruits are put into cold water and the skin and kernel are removed by pressing them out and the resulting porridge is mixed with pounded tubers, which is then eaten. The fruits are also suitable for preparing jam.
Xylopia aethiopica	Crushed powdered fruits and seeds are dried and used as pepper substitute. The seeds have an aromatic, pungent taste and were formerly sold under the name: Ethiopian pepper, Guinea pepper and Negro pepper. The dried fruits are important as flavorings to prepare local soups in West Africa.
Zanthoxylum chalybeum	When dried, the leaves can be brewed to make a kind of tea.
Zelkova serrata	Young leaves are cooked to make vegetables.
Ziziphus abyssinica	The sweet fruits are edible, and the leaves may be cooked as a vegetable.
Ziziphus mauritiana	Fruit is eaten fresh or dried and can be made into a floury meal, butter, or a cheeselike paste, used as a condiment. Also used for candy making and pickling. The fruit is a good source of carotene, vitamins A and C, and fatty oils. A refreshing drink is prepared by macerating fruits in water. In Indonesia, young leaves are cooked as a vegetable.
Ziziphus mucronata	The fruit, with thin, meally flesh and a sweetish taste, is eaten fresh or dried, in meal or porridge. The young leaves can be cooked and eaten as spinach; they are not very palatable but are nutritious. Seeds are roasted, crushed and used as a coffee substitute.
Zizyphus nummularia	The sweet and acidulous fruit is either eaten fresh, pickled, dried or made into confectionery. The juice can be made into a refreshing drink. In India, the fruit, when fully ripe and less than one centimeter in diameter, are gathered in the beginning of the winter months, dried, ground, and sieved. The powder formed is eaten either alone, mixed with Gur (a sugar condiment) or Bajra (millet) flour.
Zizyphus spina-christi	The fruit is edible and occasionally sweet, but the flavour and texture are inferior to other Ziziphus spp. which have been domesticated in Africa and especially in northern India. Average size is about 50 g, with a single large seed. The fruits contain 14.16% sugar and about 1.6% vitamin C.