Agroforestree database This database provides detailed information on a total of 670 agroforestry tree species. It is intended to help field workers and researchers in selecting appropriate species for agroforestry systems and technologies. For each species, the database includes information on identity, ecology and distribution, propagation and management, functional uses, pests and diseases and a bibliography. This project has been funded by the British Department for International Development (DFID, the European Union and the World Agroforestry Centre (ICRAF). |
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| Acacia angustissima | Soil improver: Its potential as a mulch producer has come into question, because of the presence of secondary compounds that bind the Nitrogen and result in low-quality (slowly decomposing) prunings. This may mean that the mulch is a poor Nitrogen source for the present crop, but it may have greater residual effects that could benefit the subsequent crop, or be a good Nitrogen source to help build up organic matter in the soil. These long-term benefits could outweigh the initial low nutrient return to the soil over a number of years. Slowly decomposing prunings may have value for suppressing weed growth in associated crops. |
| Acacia auriculiformis | Soil improver: Plantations of A. auriculiformis improve soil physio-chemical properties such as water-holding capacity, organic carbon, nitrogen and potassium through litter fall. Its phyllodes provide a good, long-lasting mulch. |
| Acacia crassicarpa | Soil improver: Leaves decompose slowly and are useful as mulch. |
| Acacia glauca | Soil improver: It performs very well on poor soils and in view of its unpalatability to livestock, its use as an alternative to L. leucocephala as a shrub legume deserves wider attention. |
| Acacia karroo | Soil improver: It stimulates the development of an understorey of perennials, palatable and nutritious grasses (Cenchrus ciliaris, Panicum maximum) through providing them shade, fixing nitrogen and improving soil structure and infiltration. A. karroo is considered to be a good indicator of fertile soils for crops and an indicator of surface or underground water. |
| Acacia mearnsii | Soil improver: An efficient nitrogen-fixer and good source of green manure, it thus can restore and regenerate soils. |
| Acacia nilotica subsp nilotica | Soil improver: Probably nitrogen fixing. |
| Acacia pennatula | Soil improver: Improves physical properties of the soil. |
| Acacia senegal | Soil improver: Improves soil fertility by nutrient cycling after leaf fall. |
| Acrocarpus fraxinifolius | Soil improver: Leaves are suitable for mulching. |
| Adansonia digitata | Soil improver: Decaying wood of a tree that has died of old age or from lightning is spread on fields as a fertilizer. Ashes from the shell, bark and seed are rich in potash and are useful as a fertilizer. |
| Adenanthera pavonina | Soil improver: The small leaves break down easily, making the species a good green manure. |
| Afzelia africana | Soil improver: The tree associated with ectomycorrhizal fungi, which improve the soil. The nitrogen-rich leaves are used to enrich the soil especially when mulching and littered. |
| Ailanthus triphysa | Soil improver: Leaf litter of A. triphysa on decomposition restores soil fertility. |
| Albizia chinensis | Soil improver: A. chinensis is planted for soil improvement. |
| Albizia ferruginea | Soil improver: The tree’s leaf litter improves the quality of surrounding soil. |
| Albizia gummifera | Soil improver: Known as a good mulch tree in Kenya. Leaf litter abundant during the leaf shedding season. |
| Albizia julibrissin | Soil improver: Leaf litter of the silk tree on decomposition replenish soil nutrients. In an experimental trial in the USA nutrient input-output balance of N, P, K, Ca and Mg was higher for alley cropping with A. julibrissin than for non-alley cropping systems. |
| Albizia lebbeck | Soil improver: The nitrogen-rich leaves are valuable as mulch and green manure. |
| Albizia odoratissima | Soil improver: A. odoratissima has contributed 16 kgs/ha of nitrogen from 655 kgs of dry weight leaf liter in trials and provides organic matter and soil nutrients to the rhizophere of understory plants. Tree canopies decrease soil desiccation and suppress weed growth. |
| Albizia saman | Soil improver: Pruned to yield nitrogen-rich green manure, and in pastures, A. saman is prized for its shade, high-quality, nutritious pods, and for promoting the health of the grass growing in its vicinity. This is because the soil under the tree has a higher nitrogen content than sorrounding soil. |
| Albizia zygia | Soil improver: Provides mulch leaf litter and improves the pH in acidic soils. |
| Aleurites moluccana | Soil improver: Seed press cake is suitable as a fertilizer. |
| Alnus acuminata | Soil improver: Among other positive effects of A. acuminata are the supply of organic matter and the control of soil moisture due to its shade. |
| Alnus cordata | Soil improver: A. cordata has a symbiotic relationship with certain soil micro-organisms that form nodules on the roots of the plants and fix atmospheric nitrogen. Some of this nitrogen is utilized by the growing plant and enables it to grow well in quite poor soils but some can also be used by other plants growing nearby. Alder trees also have a heavy leaf canopy and when the leaves fall in the autumn they help to build up the humus content of the soil. For these reasons it has largely been utilized in central Italy for reforestation of badly drained and wet soils, and for agro-forestry purposes. |
| Alnus nepalensis | Soil improver: Considerable quantities of nutrients are recycled through the litter of Alnus spp. Leaf and twig litter of A. nepalensis may produce 3-6 t/ha litter annually, containing N 3.4-3.7 g, P 0.08-0.1 g, K 0.6-0.7 g and Ca 0.2 g per 100 g dry matter. |
| Alnus rubra | Soil improver: Its roots and leaf litter are high in nutrients and on decaying enhance soil structure and builds up organic fraction. |
| Alphitonia zizyphoides | Soil improver: Toi has rapid growth, combined with a fairly quick turnover of leaves in the canopy, suggesting it has good potential to build organic matter, especially if grown together with legumes. It also has great potential in silvopastoral systems. |
| Anogeissus latifolia | Soil improver: Contributes to soil nutrient cycling, exhibiting high leaf-litter decomposition rates. |
| Anthocephalus cadamba | Soil improver: Sheds large amounts of leaf and non-leaf litter which on decomposition improve some physical and chemical properties of soil under its canopy. This reflects in increases in the level of soil organic carbon, cation exchange capacity, available plant nutrients and exchangeable bases. |
| Antiaris toxicaria | Soil improver: Leaf litter enriches the soil. |
| Areca catechu | Soil improver: The arecanut leaves are a good source of organic manure, containing nitrogen, phosphorous and potassium. |
| Artocarpus altilis | Soil improver: The tree can be used to provide mulch. |
| Artocarpus camansi | Soil improver: The large leaves of breadnut provide abundant mulch for the tree and other plants growing beneath the canopy. |
| Artocarpus lakoocha | Soil improver: The tree can be used to provide mulch. |
| Artocarpus mariannensis | Soil improver: The leaves provide abundant mulch for the tree and other plants growing beneath the canopy. |
| Azadirachta excelsa | Soil improver: The leaves are used in agriculture as mulch. |
| Azadirachta indica | Soil improver: Farmers in India use neem cake (the residue left after extracting oil from the seeds) as an organic manure and soil amendment. It is believed to enhance the efficiency of nitrogen fertilizers by reducing the rate of nitrification and inhibiting soil pests including nematodes, fungi, and insects. A. indica leaves and small twigs are used as mulch and green manure. |
| Barringtonia procera | Soil improver: Fallen leaves, flowers, and dead branches enrich the surrounding soil. |
| Bertholletia excelsa | Soil improver: A mixture of B. exelsa shells and manure is used in Brazil to fertilize Brachiaria humidicola pasture. |
| Blighia sapida | Soil improver: Soils under the B. sapida canopy have more organic matter and greater potassium contents (Muoghalu & Awokunle 1994). |
| Bombax costatum | Soil improver: The leaf litter enhances soil fertility. |
| Bridelia micrantha | Soil improver: The leaves are used for mulching. |
| Broussonetia papyrifera | Soil improver: Mulch comprising of chopped leaves of B. papyrifera, applied at 4 ton/ha, improves soil moisture and phosphorus content, leading to increased crop production. |
| Byrsonima crassifolia | Soil improver: The tree improves soil under its crown through accumulation of soil organic matter and K. |
| Caesalpinia velutina | Soil improver: The tree provides mulch through its complete leaf loss during the dry season. |
| Cajanus cajan | Soil improver: The root system is reported to break plough pans, thus improving soil structure, encouraging infiltration, minimizing sedimentation and smothering weeds. Leaf fall at maturity adds to the organic matter in the soil and provides additional nitrogen. It seems to have special mechanisms to extract phosphorus from black Vertisol soils. |
| Calliandra calothyrsus | Soil improver: High leaf biomass production and high yields of protein leaf material on less fertile soils make it very suitable as a green manure and it is used in alley-cropping systems. Due to litter and the combination of a deep and well-developed lateral rooting system, the soil and productivity of the land is improved. However, the relatively high level of tannins present in its leaves slows the rate of microbial breakdown of the organic matter. |
| Calodendrum capense | Soil improver: Leaf-fall is very heavy so trees provide mulch. |
| Calophyllum brasiliense | Soil improver: It has been used to stabilize soils and to relieve soil compaction in degraded pastures. |
| Calophyllum inophyllum | Soil improver: Remains of the pressed seeds (oil cake) can probably be used as a manure. |
| Calotropis procera | Soil improver: A source of green manure. The plant can help improve soil water conditions and also acts as a soil binder. |
| Canarium ovatum | Soil improver: Stony shells are excellent as a porous, inert growth medium for orchids and anthuriums. |
| Carapa guianensis | Soil improver: C. guianensis is suitable for enrichment planting. |
| Cassia abbreviata | Soil improver: The slow decomposing leaves are ideal for mulching. |
| Cassipourea malosana | Soil improver: Experimental results indicate Potassium is more easily leached from C. malosana leaves than calcium or magnesium. |
| Casuarina equisetifolia | Soil improver: C. equisetifolia possesses proteoid roots and forms associations with vesicular arbuscular mycorrhizae. |
| Casuarina junghuhniana | Soil improver: Widely planted to improve soil fertility. Branches and foliage are burnt and the ash is spread on village gardens in Timor. Branchlets decompose slowly and provide good mulch. Mycorrhizal fungi further enhance its adaptability in poor soils. |
| Casuarina oligodon | Soil improver: When it is used as a shade tree for coffee, it further improves soil fertility by its leaf litter. |
| Cocos nucifera | Soil improver: Burnt husks form a useful sort of potash that is used to fertilize the trees. The husks also make valuable mulch for moisture conservation in the dry season and help to suppress weeds. |
| Coffea arabica | Soil improver: The pulp and parchment are used as manure and mulches. Annual litter fall from both shade and crop trees, including pruning residues, maintain soil organic matter levels and hence the cation exchange capacity; this reduces the risk of leaching losses and permits a more efficient use of any inorganic fertilizers applied. |
| Colophospermum mopane | Soil improver: The ash is rich in calcium and potassium and a useful fertilizer. |
| Combretum molle | Soil improver: Leaf fall is a source of mulch and green manure for the soil. |
| Commiphora edulis | Soil improver: Leaf litter from this deciduous tree enhances soil fertility. |
| Cordia africana | Soil improver: Leaf fall in the dry season is heavy, and the leaves make good mulch. |
| Cordia alliodora | Soil improver: Improved nutrient recycling is brought about by growing C. alliodora in coffee plantations. |
| Crossopteryx febrifuga | Soil improver: The pH, available phosphorus, cation exchange capacity, total carbon content, and total nitrogen content were greater under C. febrifuga tree clumps. Potential soil respiration and mineral nitrogen accumulation was also greater beneath C. febrifuga. Soil water content was lower beneath canopies when soil moisture was greater than field capacity. |
| Crotalaria goodiaeformis | Soil improver: Leaf litter from the shrub enhances soil fertility. |
| Crotalaria juncea | Soil improver: C. juncea is widely grown in the tropics as a green manure. Total green matter yield averages 18-27 t/ha; forage yield, 5-19 t/ha. As well as producing high organic-matter yields, it can reduce the build-up of root-knot nematode populations. |
| Crotalaria micans | Soil improver: The shrub is grown as a green manure and cover crop in plantations of coffee, tea, tobacco and rice. It is easily incorporated into the soil and decomposition is rapid. |
| Crotalaria trichotoma | Soil improver: The plant is grown as green manure and cover crop in tea, coffee, rubber and citrus plantations. |
| Croton macrostachyus | Soil improver: Leaf fall provides mulch and green manure. |
| Croton megalocarpus | Soil improver: Leaves have high levels of nitrogen and phosphorus and serve as a source of mulch, for instance, in coffee plantations. |
| Dacryodes edulis | Soil improver: Leaves and the remains of the fruits can provide considerable quantities of biomass to improve soil fertility. Research carried out in the forest humid lowland of south Cameroon, showed that the peasant farmers use the tree as a good indicator of soils fertility. |
| Dactyladenia barteri | Soil improver: Monkey fruit produces large amounts of litter and recycles appreciable quantities of nutrients through its deep root system and the dense canopy aids in weed suppression. It has shown promise as mulch because of its slow decomposition rate. |
| Dalbergia latifolia | Soil improver: D. latifolia leaf litter decomposes slowly releasing nutrients gradually and it is used as a mulch. |
| Dalbergia sissoo | Soil improver: Heavy litter fall decomposes to enrich the soil with nitrogen, phosphorus and organic carbon. |
| Delonix elata | Soil improver: D. elata leaves as a green manure are rich in Magnesium, yielding 50-200 kg of mulch per year. In Madras, India the leaves are used as mulch in rice fields. |
| Derris microphylla | Soil improver: Vetch tree is used as green manure. |
| Derris robusta | Soil improver: D. robusta is occasionally used as a green manure. |
| Dichrostachys cinerea | Soil improver: The leaves, rich in nutrients, are frequently used as a green manure. In the Sahel, particularly along riverbanks, it is said to improve soils. |
| Dipterocarpus alatus | Soil improver: The organic matter and NPK content of soils under the tree canopy have been shown to be higher than in soils further away from the tree. |
| Dipterocarpus grandiflorus | Soil improver: It also improves soil conditions through its fast rate of litter deposition and organic matter decomposition. |
| Elaeis guineensis | Soil improver: The potash-rich residue from boilers is routinely recycled onto plantations to help enrich the soils for instance in Malaysia. Labour and transportation costs may discourage such recycling. |
| Emblica officinalis | Soil improver: The branches are lopped for green manure. They are said to correct excessively alkaline soils. |
| Eriobotrya japonica | Soil improver: The large leaves of E. japonica trees are suitable for mulch. |
| Erythrina abyssinica | Soil improver: Leaf fall in the dry season is a source of mulch. |
| Erythrina berteroana | Soil improver: E. berteroana mulch has been shown to result in better phosphorus balances, higher microfauna populations and increased crops yield. |
| Erythrina caffra | Soil improver: E. caffra trees usually drop their leaves during the dry periods, and these act as a mulch. |
| Erythrina edulis | Soil improver: The fallen leaves provide leaf litter. |
| Erythrina fusca | Soil improver: In Bahia, Brazil, it has been observed that cocoa trees planted near E. fusca produce more pods than those growing farther away from the shade trees. This is attributed to increased litter fall in plantations with this species, which adds to the available amounts of nitrogen and phosphorus in the soil. |
| Erythrina indica | Soil improver: Provides green manure and mulch after pruning |
| Erythrina poeppigiana | Soil improver: The green leaves of E. poeppigiana contain 4.1-4.9% nitrogen, which makes it an excellent species for green manure production. Production of nitrogen-rich litter is abundant, and the nitrogen supply in litter fall exceeds several times the export of nitrogen in the cacao harvest. The nitrogen supplied through pruning residues left on the ground fulfils recommended nitrogen application rates. |
| Erythrina variegata | Soil improver: The leaves are used as green manure. |
| Faidherbia albida | Soil improver: F. albida sheds its leaves in the rainy season; therefore, boosting the nutrient status of the soil for the new season’s crops. The fact that the tree is leafless during the rainy season minimizes competition for sunlight with crops and protects them from birds until harvest time. Recommended for integration with maize as an alternative to Leucaena leucocephala. |
| Ficus sycomorus | Soil improver: Shed leaves form a valuable litter improving the nutrient status, infiltration rate and water-holding capacity of the soil. |
| Ficus thonningii | Soil improver: Leaf litter helps in the improvement of the nutrient status and water-holding capacity of the soil. |
| Flemingia macrophylla | Soil improver: Provides mulch for associated food crops. Owing to the slow decomposition of the leaves, the mulch has long-term effects in weed control, moisture conservation and reduction of soil temperature. Flemingia mulch forms a relatively solid layer that effectively prevents germination of weed seeds or stunts their early development for 100 days. |
| Fraxinus excelsior | Soil improver: Leaf litter from F. excelsior replenishes soil nutrients. |
| Funtumia africana | Soil improver: Leaf litter improves soil fertility of surrounding soil. |
| Genipa americana | Soil improver: The heavy leaf fall of the genipap is important in improving the soils |
| Ginkgo biloba | Soil improver: Leaf litter of the maidenhair tree improves soil fertility. |
| Gliricidia sepium | Soil improver: As a green manure, G. sepium increases soil organic matter; it aids in recycling of soil nutrients as it produces much litter. It also improves soil aeration and reduces soil temperature. It is a drought-resistant and valuable water-conserving species, because in the dry season it sheds most of its leaves, hence reducing water loss through transpiration. |
| Gnetum gnemon | Soil improver: Has the ability to improve physical soil properties. |
| Grevillea robusta | Soil improver: G. robusta provides abundant quantities of leaf mulch, which may accumulate to a depth of 30-40 cm. This thick layer protects the soil and maintains soil temperature. The leaves and twigs are apparently rich in aluminium. |
| Grewia asiatica | Soil improver: In India, 5-year-old plantations of phalsa increased organic carbon, available nitrogen, phosphorus and potassium in the soil, and reduced calcium carbonate, pH and bulk density due to litter production greater than that of other fruits. |
| Grewia tenax | Soil improver: Leaf litter from the shrub improves soil physical and chemical properties. |
| Hagenia abyssinica | Soil improver: Hagenia constantly sheds leaves, providing mulch and green manure. |
| Hardwickia binata | Soil improver: Branches are much lopped for manure; leaves can be used as mulch. |
| Hevea brasiliensis | Soil improver: Press cake or extracted meal can be used as fertilizer. |
| Hyeronima alchorneoides | Soil improver: H. alchorneoides has a role in soil amelioration that may lead to an increase in soil organic carbon from to its large litter production |
| Hymenocardia acida | Soil improver: The leaf litter ameliorates soil physical and chemical properties. |
| Indigofera arrecta | Soil improver: It is also used as a cover crop and a green manure. |
| Inga edulis | Soil improver: The litter is high in nitrogen, lignins and polyphenols. It is slow to decompose, but provides a long-term build up of organic nitrogen and effective weed control. Weed biomass decreased considerably in all agroforestry trials with I. edulis, much more than with other leguminous species. Existing trials are too new to ascertain whether the species can maintain or improve soil fertility on acid sites in the long term, but results so far are promising. |
| Intsia bijuga | Soil improver: The average total annual litter production in I. bijuga is, 8789.4 kg/ha with a high leaf litter decomposition rate. Initial tannin content of the leaf litter is the major chemical factor inhibiting decomposition. High uptake of Ca from the subsoil and its enrichment in the surface soil resulted in higher soil pH under I. bijuga. |
| Jatropha curcas | Soil improver: Press cake cannot be used in animal feed because of its toxic properties, but it is valuable as organic manure due to a nitrogen content similar to that of seed cake from castor bean and chicken manure. The nitrogen content ranges from 3.2 to 3.8%, depending on the source. Tender branches and leaves are used as a green manure for coconut trees. All plant parts can be used as a green manure. |
| Khaya ivorensis | Soil improver: K. ivorensis has been used for enrichment planting. |
| Leucaena collinsii | Soil improver: Lopped leaves and twigs are applied as green manure. |
| Leucaena diversifolia | Soil improver: The annual leaf dry matter production can reach 10-16 t/ha. When incorporated as green manure, this adds 72-119 kg nitrogen, 2.5-3 kg phosphorus, 29-60 kg potassium, 47-94 kg calcium and 7.5-18.5 kg magnesium to the soil per ha. This is equivalent to about 10 t/ha cattle manure per year. |
| Leucaena esculenta | Soil improver: Lopped leaves and twigs can be applied as green manure. |
| Leucaena leucocephala | Soil improver: L. leucocephala was one of the 1st species to be used for the production of green manure in alley-cropping systems. Leaves of L. leucocephala, even with moderate yields, contain more than enough nitrogen to sustain a maize crop. The finely divided leaves decompose quickly, providing a rapid, short-term influx of nutrients. It has even been suggested that the leaves decompose too rapidly, resulting in leaching of nutrients away from the crop-rooting zone before they are taken up by the crop. This also means that they have little value as mulch for weed control. The tree has the potential to renew soil fertility and could be particularly important in slash-and-burn cultivation, as it greatly reduces the fallow period between crops. |
| Leucaena pallida | Soil improver: Lopped leaves and twigs can be applied as green manure. |
| Leucaena trichandra | Soil improver: Lopped leaves and twigs can be applied as green manure. |
| Liquidambar styraciflua | Soil improver: Leaf decay improves soil by increasing the activity of soil microflora and building up the humus layer. |
| Macadamia integrifolia | Soil improver: The decomposed husk is commonly used in potting soil. |
| Macaranga kilimandscharica | Soil improver: Leaf litter from the tree enriches surrounding soil. |
| Madhuca latifolia | Soil improver: The seed cake has been used as fertilizer |
| Mangifera indica | Soil improver: Mango leaves improve soil fertility when used as mulch for crops. |
| Manihot glaziovii | Soil improver: Applied as green leaf manure. |
| Markhamia lutea | Soil improver: It provides mulch, which enhances soil-moisture retention and increases organic matter. |
| Melia volkensii | Soil improver: A few farmers have suggested that the heavy leaf fall of M. volkensii during the later stages of crop development may increase crop yields. |
| Metroxylon sagu | Soil improver: The waste from pith processing is used as a fertilizer. |
| Michelia champaca | Soil improver: Soil under tree cover shows an increase in pH, soil organic carbon and available phosphorus. |
| Milicia excelsa | Soil improver: The leaves of the tree are used as a mulch. |
| Millettia dura | Soil improver: The leaves are good mulch material and manure. |
| Millettia thonningii | Soil improver: Leaves are shed in large quantity during the dry season and serve as mulch. |
| Mimosa pigra | Soil improver: It has been used as a green manure and cover crop in Thailand since the 1960s. |
| Mimosa scabrella | Soil improver: Throughout the year, it sheds large quantities of nitrogen-rich leaves that decompose rapidly and form rich humus. |
| Moringa oleifera | Soil improver: The green leaves make a useful mulch. The press cake left after oil extraction from the seeds can be used as a soil conditioner or as fertilizer. |
| Morus alba | Soil improver: The species helps in maintaining soil fertility through litter fall; lowers soil surface temperature. |
| Musanga cecropioides | Soil improver: Leaf litter of the umbrella tree enriches the soil and is ideal as compost material. |
| Myrianthus arboreus | Soil improver: Leaf litter of M. arboreus improves soil fertility. |
| Nauclea orientalis | Soil improver: Leaf litter on decay replenishes soil fertility. |
| Newtonia buchananii | Soil improver: The leaves are used in agriculture as mulch. |
| Opuntia ficus-indica | Soil improver: Cacti help in maintaining soil fertility via their geobiogene and trace element cycling activities, enriching the top soil in organic matter and improving its structure and the stability of its aggregates, hence permeability and water uptake balance. |
| Paraserianthes falcataria | Soil improver: The natural drop of leaves and small branches contributes nitrogen, organic matter and minerals to upper layers of soil. The plant’s extensive root system further improves soil conditions by breaking up soils to provide channels for drainage and aeration. |
| Parinari curatellifolia | Soil improver: The high content of cellulose limits the use of the oil cake. However, it could be used as manure. |
| Parkia biglobosa | Soil improver: Soils under P. biglobosa trees are improved by leaf fall. |
| Parkinsonia aculeata | Soil improver: Provides a large amount of leaf litter that is applied as mulch to the soil. |
| Peltophorum dasyrhachis | Soil improver: Due to a fairly high content of polyphenolic substances, leaf litter decomposition is slow, allowing a humus layer to build up in the soil. When hedge were pruned 2-4 times per year, an annual yield of prunings of 8 t/ha was found in Lampung (Indonesia), containing 200 kg nitrogen. |
| Peltophorum pterocarpum | Soil improver: Copper-pod is a source of green manure. |
| Pentaclethra macrophylla | Soil improver: Leaves are shed during the dry season and farmers believe this contributes to soil fertility within the home garden. |
| Phoenix dactylifera | Soil improver: Prunings of leaves are used as manure. |
| Piliostigma malabaricum | Soil improver: The fallen leaves on decomposition revitalise soil nutrients. |
| Piliostigma thonningii | Soil improver: Produces considerable amounts of litter. Use of the leaf litter as mulch enhances soil fertility however P. thonningii leaves decompose slowly. |
| Pistacia integerrima | Soil improver: P. integerrrima is used for improved fallows and the leaves are used as green manure. |
| Polyscias fulva | Soil improver: Leaf fall provides good mulch, with soil under the tree being quite fertile. |
| Polyscias kikuyuensis | Soil improver: The leaf litter can serve well as mulch; usually soil under the tree is quite fertile. |
| Pongamia pinnata | Soil improver: Incorporation of leaves and the presscake into soils improves fertility. Decomposed flowers are valued in the tropics as rich nutrition for special plants, especially when grown in greenhouses. |
| Populus deltoides | Soil improver: P. deltoides produces a large quantity of leaves. The nitrogen contribution to the soil could be as much as 43 kg in 3 years and 102 kg in 11 years. Improvements in soil structure and chemical properties under P. deltoides are also possible. |
| Populus euphratica | Soil improver: The tree crown intercepts rain and checks soil erosion, thereby improving soil physical properties. |
| Prosopis africana | Soil improver: Provides a useful mulch for the soil. |
| Prosopis cineraria | Soil improver: Pakistanis and Indians believe, quite properly, that it increases fertility under its canopy. |
| Prosopis glandulosa | Soil improver: A provider of humus to the soil. |
| Prosopis juliflora | Soil improver: Total nitrogen, sulphur and soluble salts, as well as organic matter, have been shown to increase 3-fold in the upper 4.5 m of soil under P. juliflora. |
| Prunus africana | Soil improver: Leaves can be used as mulch and green manure. |
| Pterocarpus santalinoides | Soil improver: Leaf litter from P. santalinoides on decomposition slowly releases N and significantly increases soil exchangeable Ca and Mg in the soil. |
| Pterogyne nitens | Soil improver: Leaf litter of P. nitens enriches surrounding soil. |
| Punica granatum | Soil improver: Pomegranate leaf litter decomposes slowly and is suitable for mulching. |
| Rhizophora mucronata | Soil improver: The bark, according to some chemical analyses, appears to contain mainly of lime (18%) and calcium carbonate (70%), and can be used as fertilizer. |
| Ricinodendron heudelotii | Soil improver: The cake from seed-oil extraction is a good nitrogenous fertilizer. |
| Robinia pseudoacacia | Soil improver: Nutrients such as calcium, magnesium and phosphorus are available through leaf litter fall. |
| Salvadora oleoides | Soil improver: Seed meal left after fat extraction is valued as fertilizer for tobacco. |
| Sandoricum koetjape | Soil improver: S. koetjape is known to form vesicular arbiscular mycorrhizae. |
| Santalum album | Soil improver: Leaves make good green manure. |
| Santalum spicatum | Soil improver: The ground under the canopy of this tree is usually littered with seeds and leaves these on decay replenish soil nutrients. |
| Sapindus mukorossi | Soil improver: Seed kernels which are a by-product of the oil extraction from the pericarp and shells can be used as fertilizer |
| Sarcocephalus latifolius | Soil improver: The leaves are used as mulch. |
| Schefflera heptaphylla | Soil improver: The leaves and young branches are used as green manure. |
| Schefflera volkensii | Soil improver: The leaf litter is good mulching material. |
| Schizolobium parahybum | Soil improver: The enormous amount of biomass shed by the tree improves soil fertility. |
| Senna atomaria | Soil improver: The leaf fall especially during the dry, or leaf shedding season on decomposition enhances soil fertility. |
| Senna didymobotrya | Soil improver: The aboveground biomass of S. didymobotrya grown as ground cover in Sri Lanka was found to contain 0.7 g N per 100 g fresh material. It was introduced as a green manure in India, Sri Lanka, Peninsular Malaysia and Java. It was introduced as a cover crop in India, Sri Lanka, Peninsular Malaysia and Java. |
| Senna siamea | Soil improver: Leaves are used as green manure, and a well-grown tree can yield 500 kg/year of fresh leaves. S. siamea forms ecto-mycorrhizae and provides very useful mulch, especially in alley-cropping systems. |
| Senna singueana | Soil improver: The leaves are said to make green manure. |
| Senna spectabilis | Soil improver: Tree provides mulch. |
| Sesbania bispinosa | Soil improver: S. bispinosa has remarkable sustaining quality on soils of poor fertility and texture. It improves soil permeability. The leftover stalks, roots and fallen leaves enrich the soil further by adding organic matter. It is also an important green manure crop; rice yields after a S. bispinosa green manure crop ploughed in 60-70 days after planting are equal to those obtained with the application of about 80 kg N/ha of chemical fertilizer. |
| Sesbania grandiflora | Soil improver: Fruits, falling leaflets and flowers make excellent green manure or mulch and improve soil fertility. It is a well-suited annual for dense planting, growing for short periods and ploughing under to improve soil before planting food crops. |
| Sesbania macrantha | Soil improver: With a life span of only a year but with outstanding growth and biomass production, S. macrantha is an ideal candidate for improved fallows, enrichment of fodder banks and green manure production in biomass transfer systems for soil improvement. |
| Sesbania rostrata | Soil improver (paragraph 1): It is used as green manure in wetrice cultivation. Grown as a green manure crop S. rostrata is allowed to grow for 45-65 days depending on its growth rate. When it is left to grow longer than about 55 days, the lignin content increases which decreases the decomposition rate of plant biomass. During the short-day season, it may be left to grow longer as it starts flowering early, resulting in a lower growth rate. The green manure crop is ploughed in just before the rice crop is sown or transplanted. Initial decomposition is rapid, with 30-45% of the leaf material decomposing in 10 days after incorporation. Decomposition then slows down considerably, reaching 50% after 35 days, while the half-life of stems and root-stubble is about 110 days. Soil improver (paragraph 2): When S. rostrata is grown for green manure, aplying P and K fertilizers at the rate normally given to rice may increase nitrogen fixation by 30% and improve the availability of N, P and K to the subsequent rice crop. At the International Rice Research Institute, Los Ba±os, the Philippines, the average rice grain yield was about 6 t/ha after incorporation of a S. rostrata crop grown for 45-60 days, which is the same as the yield obtained with urea applied at a rate of 50-60 kg/ha. Under favourable conditions the amount of N accumulated in the green manure crop is about 100 kg/ha in 50 days and 160 kg/ha in 60 days. The residual effect of Sesbania green manure application on soil organic matter and N levels seems limited. |
| Sesbania sesban | Soil improver: S. sesban will increase soil nitrogen through symbiotic interaction with bacteria, has the ability to stabilize soil, and in Asia has been used as green manure for rice. Its branches have been used as mulch and leaves as a green manure. S. sesban improves soil fertility in a short-term rotation fallow and is useful in combating striga weed (Striga hermonthica). Some studies indicate that in 1 year a S. sesban fallow can increase maize yields from 2 to 4 t/ha without application of nitrogen fertilizer. |
| Shorea javanica | Soil improver: Roots are well fortified by typical mycorrhizal association, which enables them to absorb and accumulate nitrogen, phosphorus, potassium and calcium more rapidly and for longer periods than non-mycorrhizal roots. |
| Shorea negrosensis | Soil improver: Leaf litter of S. negrosensis on decay improves soil quality. |
| Simaruba glauca | Soil improver: The press cake resulting from the milling operation is used as an organic fertilizer and has given good results on coffee, sugarcane, cotton and maize. |
| Spondias purpurea | Soil improver: A seasonal variation occurs in leaf litter composition. N, Calcium and Magnesium levels were adequate whereas P and K levels were below the optimal range. |
| Steganotaenia araliacea | Soil improver: Leaf litter enriches surrounding soil. |
| Swietenia humilis | Soil improver: Leaf litter from S. humilis enhances soil fertility. |
| Swietenia macrophylla | Soil improver: The crushed fruit shells have been used as a potting medium. |
| Tamarix aphylla | Soil improver: The tree sheds leaves and twigs abundantly forming a compact litter that improves water holding capacity of the sand. However, it is reported to have a high water output through transpiration. |
| Tarchonanthus camphoratus | Soil improver: The slow decomposing leaves improve soil fertility. |
| Teclea nobilis | Soil improver: The leaf litter enriches underlying soil. |
| Tecomaria capensis | Soil improver: The leaf litter on decomposition improves soil fertility. |
| Tephrosia candida | Soil improver: T. candida not only provides nitrogen but also raises soil phosphorus and potassium levels in proportion to increased levels of organic matter. Soil structure improves, water-holding capacity and permeability increase, and soil losses caused by water erosion decrease. It can yield well on acid soils; for example, in Vietnam, green-matter content of the soil increased from 1.7 to 4%. |
| Tephrosia purpurea | Soil improver: T. purpurea is used as green manure for vegetables, rice, coconut and banana, especially in India and Sri Lanka, and on a more limited scale in Indonesia, Malaysia and southern China. When grown as a green manure on saline-sodic soils in Rajastan (India), it is most successful in reducing soil salinity and lowering the pH. |
| Tephrosia villosa | Soil improver: Used as green manure and annual cover crop in Africa, tested in Indonesia. |
| Tephrosia vogelii | Soil improver: In central Africa, Indonesia, the Philippines and peninsular Malaysia it is used as green manure, e.g. in coconut plantations. The nitrogen content is 3.7 g/100 g dry matter in plants 2-3 months old, falling to 1.2 g in 10-month-old material, while the phosphorus content drops from 0.8 g to 0.2 g. |
| Terminalia brownii | Soil improver: Leaf fall is heavy, making excellent mulch. |
| Terminalia catappa | Soil improver: A good provider of mulch for the protection of soil and young crops. |
| Terminalia prunioides | Soil improver: Leaves are used as green manure. |
| Terminalia sericea | Soil improver: The tree improves sites by draining waterlogged soils, shading out weeds, and enriching impoverished soils. It is recommended for reforestation, agroforestry, and land improvement purposes. |
| Theobroma cacao | Soil improver: There is considerable nutrient cycling through the development of a deep leaf litter under the cocoa canopy. |
| Thespesia populnea | Soil improver: Leaves are used for green manure. Wood chippings have also been tried as a green manure. |
| Tipuana tipu | Soil improver: Dead flowers produce some litter, which improves soil texture and nutrient content. |
| Tithonia diversifolia | Soil improver: Crops such as maize respond well when leaves and cuttings are applied at the rate of 1 t/ha, but best results are obtained with 5 t/ha of leafy dry matter. This is equivalent to about 159 kg N, 15 kg P, 161 kg K, 100 kg Ca and 15 kg Mn per hectare. Yields of kale, French beans, tomatoes and Napier grass all increased when these crops were planted with T. diversifolia. |
| Treculia africana | Soil improver: The tree is a good source of mulch. |
| Trema orientalis | Soil improver: The mulch is used to improve the soil. The tree is common as a fallow species in shifting cultivation. |
| Trichilia emetica | Soil improver: The pressed seedcake left after oil has been extracted, with an approximate protein content of 16%, is suitable as a fertilizer. |
| Uapaca kirkiana | Soil improver: In natural stands, U. kirkiana forms a mutual association with mycorrhizae. |
| Vitellaria paradoxa | Soil improver: The husks of the seeds make a good mulch and fertilizer. |
| Vitex doniana | Soil improver: Leaves can be used for mulch. |
| Vitex keniensis | Soil improver: Deciduous and produces a useful mulch of leaf litter. |
| Vitex payos | Soil improver: The tree improves the soil through leaf fall. |
| Warburgia salutaris | Soil improver: Foliage can be used for green manure and mulch. |
| Warburgia ugandensis | Soil improver: Can provide green manure and mulch. |
| Wrightia tinctoria | Soil improver: The branches are trampled into the puddle soil in rice field for green manuring. |
| Zizyphus spina-christi | Soil improver: The tree improves soil quality by increasing available Phosphorus. |
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