World Agroforestry Centre | agroforestree database 4.0

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This database provides detailed information on a total of 670 agroforestry tree species. It is intended to help field workers and researchers in selecting appropriate species for agroforestry systems and technologies.

For each species, the database includes information on identity, ecology and distribution, propagation and management, functional uses, pests and diseases and a bibliography.

This project has been funded by the British Department for International Development (DFID, the European Union and the World Agroforestry Centre (ICRAF).

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Abelmoschus moschatus	It is in flower from July to September, and the seeds ripen from August to October. The scented flowers are hermaphrodite (have both male and female organs) and are pollinated by Insects.
Acacia angustissima	The species flowers throughout the year in its natural range, and at the end of the dry season in trials in Zimbabwe. A. angustissima is a prolific seed producer.
Acacia koa	Observations suggest A. koa can flower almost any time of year, depending upon local weather conditions. One known pollinator of A. koa is the honeybee (Apis mellifera). A. koa appears to be self-fertilizing. Pods reach maturity at 4-6 months, depending on location and weather conditions.
Acacia mearnsii	A. mearnsii is a hermaphrodite and flowers profusely in the winter. Trees begin to yield fertile seed from the age of 5 years, giving good annual crops. The minute, fragrant flowers are self-fertile, but cross-pollination occurs. Bees are the main pollinators. Pods mature in 14 months, and gravity or propulsion from drying dehiscent pods initiates seed dispersal. In Nigrils, India, A. mearnsii flowers mainly in January-February and sporadically all year round; pods in April-May. In Australia, flowering takes place between October and December and fruits mature in 12-14 months.
Afzelia africana	Flowering occurs at the end of the dry season (April-May in Guinea) and fruiting takes place from December to February. Wind and animals disperse the seeds.
Agathis macrophylla	Pacific kauri is monoecious and produces cones instead of flowers. The first female cones begin to be produced at about 10 years old and take up to 2 years to mature (more often in 12-15 months). The seeds, released during disintegration of the cone are mostly wind dispersed. Long dispersal distances of up to hundreds of kilometers is likely during cyclones. Pacific kauri has an estimated life span of 300–1000 years and a 40-55 years projected rotation length for timber production.
Albizia odoratissima	A. odoratissima is hermaphroditic and deciduous with a short leafless period from December to February. New leaves normally appear before the old ones have completely fallen, (March-April in northern India). Flowers appear from March to June. Fruits appear in early August and start ripening at the end of October.
Alnus cordata	Flowers appear in early spring (February-March) and persists through the winter, while the fruits ripen in early fall.
Annona cherimola	A problem with the cherimoya is inadequate natural pollination because the male and female structures of each flower do not mature simultaneously. Few insects visit the flowers. Therefore, hand-pollination is highly desirable and must be done in a 6-8 hour period when the stigmas are white and sticky. It has been found in Chile that in the first flowers to open the pollen grains are loaded with starch, whereas flowers that open later have more abundant pollen, no starch grains, and the pollen germinates readily. Partly-opened flowers are collected in the afternoons and kept in a paper bag overnight. The next morning the shed pollen is put, together with moist paper, in a vial and transferred by brush to the receptive stigmas. Usually only a few of the flowers on a tree are pollinated each time, the operation being repeated every 4-5 days in order to extend the season of ripening. The closely related A. senegalensis, if available, is a good source of abundant pollen for pollinating the cherimoya, that of the sugar apple is not satisfactory. Fruits from hand-pollinated flowers are normally superior in form and size. The leaves are briefly deciduous (just before spring flowering). The flowers appear with new growth flushes in April to mid-summer and fruits ripen from October to May in California.
Annona muricata	Flowers are protandrous, and the pollen is shed as the outer petals open towards the evening. The inner petals open much later and only very slightly, admitting small insects attracted by the fragrance of the flowers. Beetles of several species are important in carrying out natural pollination. Presumably these insects effect cross-pollination, though rather inadequately, for few flowers set fruit and many fruits are misshapen since numerous ovules are not fertilized. Hand pollination is effective in improving fruit yield and quality. Fruiting starts in the 2nd year, and 5-year-old trees produce 10-50 fruits, depending on pollination efficiency and nutrient status. Sporadic flowering and fruiting can occur all year round in favourable conditions.
Annona reticulata	The short twigs are shed after they have borne flowers and fruits.
Annona squamosa	Trees start to bear fruit when 3-4 years old. In Puerto Rico and the Virgin Islands, flowering and fruiting occur throughout the year. In India, the leaves fall in January-February and are renewed in April-May when the flowers appear, and fruiting is in July-August.
Areca catechu	Arecanut palm is a monoecious plant with male and female flowers occurring on the same spadix. Every year 3-4 inflorescences are produced. The first inflorescence on young palms may produce only male flowers. The male flowers open for a few hours, shedding pollen most in the morning; bees and other insects collect this. The average male flowering period is 2-4 weeks; after this the stigmas in female flowers become receptive for 3-4 days. The sweet-scented male flowers are visited by bees and other insects for nectar, but insects have not been observed visiting the female flowers. It is thought that most of the flowers are wind pollinated.
Artocarpus camansi	Breadnut trees begin producing at 8–10 years of age. The fruiting season is October-May, with some fruits available into July in Hawaii, whereas in the Philippines it begins fruiting in April or May. The trees grow widely scattered in the forest and are dispersed by birds, flying foxes, and arboreal mammals that feed on the flesh and drop the large seeds. Seeds quickly germinate and will often sprout inside the fallen fruits.
Artocarpus heterophyllus	Trees start flowering and fruiting 2-8 years after planting. Flower and fruit loads are initially low and improve with increasing size and age; trees 2 years old produce about 25 flowers and 3 fruits; trees 5 years old bear as many as 840 flowers, and trees 6 years old 1500 flowers. However, only 15-18 fruits develop due to the low production of female spikes (about 0.6-5% of the total number of inflorescences). Young trees bear more male than female flowers at a ratio of 4:1; production of female flower increases with age. A male-to-female ratio of 2:1 produces 250 fruits per tree, and as the trees ages, fruit productivity declines. In suitable environments trees bear fruits and flowers throughout the year, but in areas with distinct dry and wet seasons, flowering occurs in the wet season. In young trees, fruits are usually borne on branches and in older trees, on trunks and roots. The tree is wind and insect pollinated. Insects normally visit the scented male flowers, which release pollen that is carried to female flowers by the wind. Wilting and drying stigmas are the best indicators of fruit set. Fruits mature in 80-160 days, and a sweet and strong aroma indicates that the fruit is ripe.
Artocarpus mariannensis	Trees begin fruiting in approximately 5 years. The flowers are cross pollinated but pollination is not required for a fruit to form. Fruit is produced mainly in summer and the seeds are dispersed by flying foxes (fruit bats).
Byrsonima crassifolia	In Mexico, B. crassifolia blooms from April through July and the fruits are marketed in September and October. In Puerto Rico, the tree blooms and fruits continuously from spring to fall and in Brazil from December-April.
Cananga odorata	Both cultivated and wild trees flower throughout the year with marked seasonal peaks after periods of dry weather. In Peninsular Malaysia there is regular flowering for several weeks between February and May and often a second flowering between August and October. In Java, there are 3-4 peaks in flowering; flowering is most abundant at the end of the rainy season, while flowers are richer in oil during the dry season. In Florida, this tree blooms twice a year in June/July/August and near December but usually bloom almost continuously all year long. Squirrels, bats, monkeys and birds eat the oily fruits, by which means the seed is dispersed.
Casuarina oligodon	In its natural range in Papua New Guinea, flowering starts around early August and cones are ready to collect by November-December. Flowers are unisexual. The tree is wind pollinated.
Chamaecytisus palmensis	In southern Australia, flowers appear in early spring (July-September) and pods ripen in November-December.
Chrysophyllum cainito	C. cainito commences to bear fruit in its 3rd to 5th year and usually reaches its full production in its 6th to 7th year. Flowering occurs in the summer, and the fruits mature from late fall to summer. The fruit ripening season in the West Indies is April and May; it is reported that trees do not fruit in the Virgin Islands. Bats disperse the fruit.
Coffea arabica	The plant is tetraploid, and over 30 mutations have been recognized. In the bisexual flowers, pollen is shed shortly after the flower opens, and the stigma is receptive immediately. Self-pollination can occur, as seed sets even when the flowers are bagged. Pollination is also by honeybees, which collect nectar and pollen from the flowers. Dispersal is mainly by birds and mammals.
Dimocarpus longan	Fruits ripen from early to mid-August in China, August and September in Florida.
Diospyros kaki	D. kaki trees flower in March; are usually either male or female, but some trees have both male and female flowers. On male plants, occasional perfect (bisexual) flowers occur, producing an atypical fruit. A tree's sexual expression can vary from one year to the other. Many cultivars are parthenocarpic, although some climates require pollination for adequate production. When plants are pollinated, they will produce fruits with seeds and may be larger and have a different flavor and texture than do their seedless counterparts. Many cultivars begin to bear 3-4 years after planting out; others after 5-6 years. Shedding of many blossoms, immature and nearly mature fruits is characteristic of the Japanese persimmon as well as the tendency toward alternate bearing. Harvesting takes place in fall and early winter. Late ripening cultivars may be picked after hard frosts or light-snowfall.
Eriobotrya japonica	A hermaphroditic species, the self-incompatibility of E. japonica is gametophytic. Cloned trees flower readily within 1-2 years, but worthwhile fruit set takes a few more years. Honeybees are its pollen vectors. After fertilization, the fruit develops very rapidly. Birds and bats disperse the fruit.
Eugenia stipitata	The pollen grain dispersal unit is elongated or triangular shaped. There is 1 grain (12-20 µm) per dispersal unit, each with 3 apertures and 2 nuclei. E. stipitata is a hermaphrodite with the characteristics of male sterility, polyembryony and polyploidy. Pollen should be stored in dry conditions for only several days. The reproductive strategy is allogamous, with 2-5 years for each reproductive cycle. Bats are the pollen vectors and the main dispersal agents of the trees in their natural habitat. Other birds and mammals also disperse the fruit. Plants growing in well-fertilized soils can flower and fruit throughout the year.
Garcinia gummi-gutta	Seed-grown plants start bearing after 10-12 years whereas grafts from the third year onwards and will attain the stage of full bearing at the age of 12-15 years. In India, flowering occurs in January-March and fruits mature in July. There are also reports of off-season bearers, bearing twice annually. The orange yellow mature fruits either drop from the tree or are harvested manually. The rind is separated for processing immediately after harvest. G. gummi-gatta flowers in the dry season. It appears to be pollinated by wind, bees and small weevils of the genus Deleromus (Curculionidae). Monkeys (Presbytus entellus and Macaca radiata) and species of civets (Paradoxorus hermaphroditus and P. jerdonii) disperse the fruits. The seeds are consumed by two species of arboreal squirrels (Ratufa indica and Funambulus palmaram).
Gnetum gnemon	A coupled process of double fertilization and post-fertilization endosperm formation occurs in the genus Gnetum. However the product of the second fertilization event in Gnetum is diploid and expresses the developmental programme of an embryo. In G. gnemon, egg cells are not formed and maternal provisioning of the embryo-nourishing female gametophyte takes place entirely after fertilization. The lack of differentiated egg cells in G. gnemon is unparalleled among land plants, the biological significance of double fertilization that does not form endosperm, in Gnetum, is currently unknown. This process may be biologically neutral. Seeds produced three times yearly in Indonesia, March-April, June-July and September-October. The strobili are visited by nectar-seeking moths of Pyralidae and Geometridae. The sticky pollen of Gnetum attaches on proboscides and antennae of these moths. Lack of showy petals, an apparent disadvantage in entomophily is compensated for by floral fragrancy. Bears one seed per fruit, a maximum yield for 100 year old trees could reach 80-100 Kg of seed/ year. Several varieties have been recognized on the basis of variation in tree habit and fruit /seed size. However two varieties are broadly accepted var. tenerum and var. gnemon.
Hibiscus sabdariffa	H. sabdariffa is a hermaphroditic and insect pollinated shrub. The species hybridizes with Hibiscus cannabinus. Roselle plants exhibit marked photoperiodism, not flowering at short days of 13.5 hours, but flowering at 11 hours. In the United States plants do not flower until short days of late fall or early winter.
Hyeronima alchorneoides	H. alchorneoides is evergreen with leaves emerging and abscising continuously. The tree is readily recognized in the forest due to the presence of red, pre-senescent leaves in the canopy all year round. Trees are reproductively mature by the time they are 30 cm in dbh. In many places, flowering and fruiting takes place twice a year. The time of flowering can vary according to rainfall and altitude and sometimes there seems to be no fixed seasonality of the seed production. In Costa Rica, the trees flower in May-July and sporadically in November-January. The peak of seed production is in January-March. Small insects pollinate the flowers and the species has obligate cross-pollination. The fruits are fleshy, sweet mesocarp, and are dispersed by monkeys and birds
Lawsonia inermis	Birds feed on the fruits of L. inermis and probably disperse the seeds.
Litchi chinensis	L. chinensis requires seasonal temperature variations for best flowering and fruiting. Warm, humid summers are best for flowering and fruit development, and a certain amount of winter chilling is necessary for flower-bud development. Usually male flowers appear first, then the females and imperfect bisexual flowers. Pollination is effected by a number of insects including flies, ants and wasps, but bees are very effective.
Macadamia integrifolia	Floral initiation takes place when temperatures drop and trees become quiescent in autumn, the optimum temperature being 18 deg. C. The initials remain dormant for 50-96 days; the racemes extend after a rise in temperature and some rain. In Australia high yields are associated with a strong and early spring flush before anthesis, followed by minimal shoot growth throughout the 6-month nut development period. At the end of nut development, there is a late summer flush; meanwhile nuts may be retained on the tree for a further 3 months, but gradually they fall. The flowers are protandrous, the anthers dehiscing 1-2 days before anthesis, whereas the stigma does not support pollen tube growth until 1-2 days after anthesis. Pollination is by insects; most cultivars are at least partly self-incompatible. Planting pollinator trees and introducing bees are important for good fruit set. Fruitlets continue to be shed up to 2 months after bloom.
Macadamia tetraphylla	Flowers appear August - October and fruits ripen in January.
Malpighia glabra	In Puerto Rico flowering appeared to be independent of the daylength and several cropping periods are possible per year, especially with alternating dry and rainy periods. The flowers are pollinated by insects; honey bees substantially improve fruit set. Self- and cross-incompatibiliy have been reported. Fruits ripen completely 3-4 weeks after flowering. In Puerto Rico the large-fruited (up to 20 g/fruit) selection B-15 is most important.
Manilkara zapota	No specific information on pollination has been found, but honeybees collect nectar from the flowers and may contribute to the pollination. Flowers are bisexual; the stigma extends beyond the corolla. The tree flowers and fruits throughout the year; fruit take about 4 months to mature. Seedlings may take 5-8 years to bear fruit, while grafted varieties take only 2-3 years from planting out.
Moringa oleifera	The bisexual, oblique, stalked, axillary and heteromorphic flowers are highly cross-pollinated due to heteromorphism. The carpenter bees (Xylocopa latipes and X. pubescens) have been found the most reliable and appropriate pollinators. Sunbirds Nectaria zeylanica and N. asiatica have also been observed to be active pollinators.
Nephelium lappaceum	The perfect flowers are functionally pistillate or staminate. Most commercial cultivars behave hermaphroditically and are self fertile, with 0.05-0.9% of the functional females possessing functional stamens. Insect pollination is necessary. Depending on the cultivar, flowering may spread over a period of 23-38 days, with an average of 3.4% setting fruit. Fruits may be produced in large bunches, with 40-60 fruits/panicle, but most often only 12-13/panicle are retained to maturity. Final fruit set is usually between 0.7-1.45%. Time required from fruit set to harvest is about 105-115 days.
Olea europaea ssp. africana	In it native range the fruits typically ripen in September, towards the end of the rainy season. Usually only 1 ovule is fertilized.
Parkinsonia aculeata	The tree profusely produces seeds and grows easily from seed. The showy flowers appear in April-May and sporadically almost throughout the year. In India, seeds generally ripen in March-April.
Paullinia cupana	Guarana is a monoecious, allogamous species. It is fertilized by bees of the genera Melipona and Apis. It is dispersed by birds.
Populus deltoides	P. deltoides is dioecious with sex ratio of 1 to 1. Male buds develop somewhat earlier than female buds and are much larger. Flowering occurs before leaves appear.Trees as young as 4 to 5 years old have flowered. Male flowers are 8 to 13 cm long, have 40 to 60 reddish stamens and are more conspicuous than the female flowers. Female flowers elongate to 15 to 30 cm. Flowering varies by as much as a month among trees in a stand. As a result, early-flowering trees do not have the opportunity to cross with late-flowering trees. In India, anthesis occurs usually in the 1st week of April, and seed is ripe by early June. In the lower Mississippi Valley of the USA, seed ripening and dispersal take place from mid-May through late August, while in northeastern USA it occurs slightly later. P. deltoides produces large seed crops nearly every year. When shed, the small seed has a small tuft of hair attached to its base that helps in wind dispersal.
Pouteria campechiana	There is considerable variation as to the time of flowering and fruiting among seedling trees. Blooming extends from January to June in Mexico. In Cuba, the bisexual flowers are borne mostly in April and May though some trees flower all year. The fruits generally mature from September to January or February in the Bahamas, from November or December to February or March in Florida. In Cuba, the main fruiting season is from October to February but some trees produce more or less continuously throughout the year. The mature but still firm fruits should be clipped to avoid tearing the skin. When left to ripen on the tree, the fruits split at the stem end and fall.
Psidium guajava	The pollen is viable for up to 42 hours and the stigmas are receptive for about 2 days. Bees are the principal pollinators. There is some self- and cross-incompatibility but several cultivars have set fair crops of seedless or few-seeded fruit. Levels of 60-75% selfing have been found in natural populations; this has been used to produce homozygotic varieties that can be propagated from seed. It is not known to what extent erratic flowering through the year affects pollination intensity. One of the most critical botanical characteristics of guava is that flowers are borne on newly emerging lateral shoots, irrespective of the time of year. The floral structure, which makes emasculation difficult and with a juvenile period of 3-5 years limit conventional breeding. Seedlings may flower within 2 years; clonally propagated trees often begin to bear during the first year after planting. Trees reach full bearing after 5-8 years, depending on growing conditions and spacing. The guava is not a long-lived tree (about 40 years), but the plants may bear heavily for 15-25 years. Bats are the main fruit dispersal agents.
Pterocarpus indicus	In the Philippines, N. Borneo and Malay Peninsula flowering is mostly in February-May, occasionally in August-November, whereas in Celebes, Moluccas, Carolines, Solomons, and New Guinea, mostly in July-December, occasionally in February-May. A large number of bee species representing many different genera visit narra, indicating insect pollination. Fruit seems to ripen within 4-6 months.
Pueraria montana	Kudzu may grow 35 m or more in a single season. Bees have been reported to act as pollinators, and kudzu is said to be cross-pollinated. Outside its native area of distribution seed set is often poor.
Sesbania rostrata
Spondias purpurea	S. purpurea is a hermaphroditic tree. Flowers in the period between March and April and fruits when defoliated. Fruits ripen from June to July. S. purpurea undergoes defoliation in autumn and dormancy during winter.
Styrax tonkinensis	S. tonkinensis is a semi-deciduous tree that sheds many of its leaves during the cool, dry season between November and February. Old trees shed more leaves than young trees. Flowering and fruiting time varies with location. The trees begin to flower when they are 4-5 years old. The flowering (which depend on location), usually occurs during April-June and the fruits mature from July to November.
Syzygium aromaticum	The clove tree is monoecious, flowers are hermaphrodite and self-pollinating. The tree matures between 8-10 years after planting. Fruits mature approximately 9 months after flower initiation and are considered physiologically mature when the exocarp turns reddish-purple in colour. Flowering varies between areas, in India flowering is from February-May, in Zanzibar (Tanzania) July-September and October-January. Fruiting normally occurs 5-6 months after flowering.
Syzygium malaccense	There are definite flowering seasons, often two, sometimes three in a year, but the timing varies from year to year. There seems to be no regular growth rhythm for Malay apple. Apparently the trees are triggered into bloom (by wet weather following a dry period) more readily than water apple (S. aqueum) and wax jambu (S. samarangense) trees; at any rate, Malay apple usually has the most crops per year. Malay apples ripen about 60 days after bloom. Polyembryony occurs in the genus and has been observed in Malay apple seed. Shoot growth proceeds in flushes which are more or less synchronous, depending on the climate. The juvenile period lasts for 3-7 years. Bearing of clonal trees starts after 3-5 years.
Syzygium samarangense	Shoot growth proceeds in flushes which are more or less synchronous, depending on the climate. The juvenile period lasts for 3-7 years. Bearing of clonal trees starts after 3-5 years. There are definite flowering seasons, often two, sometimes three in a year, but the timing varies from year to year. Wax jambu commonly flowers early or late in the dry season; the flowers appear to be self-compatible and the fruit ripens 30-40 days after anthesis.
Theobroma cacao	Cacao is naturally out-breeding, and various insects are associated with its pollination, the main ones being thrips, midges, ants and aphids. It has a complex system of self-incompatibility. After successful pollination, fertilization takes place within 36 hours; the sepals, petals and staminodes drop away and the stamens and pistil wither. The young pod, known as the cherelle, begins to develop by longitudinal elongation, followed by increase in width. The period between fertilization and pod maturation varies from 150 to 180 days, depending on the variety. The pod turns light yellow when ripe and is ready for harvesting at this stage.
Vitellaria paradoxa	The hermaphroditic flowers are usually cross-pollinated, but can be self-pollinated. Insects, especially bees, are important for pollination. Flowering lasts 30-75 days and the fruit takes 4-6 months to develop, reaching maturity early in the rainy season. The sugary pulp of the fruit makes it attractive to a wide range of animals. A large variety of birds, ungulates and primates, including humans, eat them, dispersing the seed in the process.
Zelkova serrata	Zelkova serrata flowers in spring (March-May) as the foliage emerges, followed by fruits maturing in mid to late summer.