World Agroforestry Centre | agroforestree database 4.0

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This database provides detailed information on a total of 670 agroforestry tree species. It is intended to help field workers and researchers in selecting appropriate species for agroforestry systems and technologies.

For each species, the database includes information on identity, ecology and distribution, propagation and management, functional uses, pests and diseases and a bibliography.

This project has been funded by the British Department for International Development (DFID, the European Union and the World Agroforestry Centre (ICRAF).

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Acacia auriculiformis	Newly emerged seedlings should receive 50% shade. Once they are established, 70% full sunlight is optimal. In genera, 3-4 months are needed to raise transplantable seedlings that are 25 cm tall. The optimal planting density is not clearly established. Most current plantings are spaced at 2-4 x 2-4 m, the closer spacing being more suitable for firewood and pulp plantations. Removal of lower branches and of young plants has been suggested as a means of improving stem form and of reducing the incidence of multiple stems. A. auriculiformis responds well to pollarding. Young trees respond to coppicing better than old trees, but the tree does not sprout vigorously or prolifically. Best results are obtained if the stump is cut at a height of 0.6-1 m above the ground. Under favourable conditions, trees may reach a height of 15 m in 5 years and produce an annual wood increment of 15-20 cubic m/ha over 10-12 years. An increment in height of 2-4 m per year in the first few years is common even on soils of low fertility. On relatively fertile Javanese soils receiving 2 000 mm annual rainfall, a mean annual increment of 15-20 m³/ha is obtainable but on less fertile or highly eroded sites the increment is reduced to 8-12 m³/ha. Recommended rotation is 4-5 years for fuelwood, 8-10 years for pulp and 12-15 years for timber. One or two thinnings are required with longer rotations, depending on initial spacing, site quality and tree growth.
Acacia holosericea	Lopping and pollarding are recommended. Generally A. holosericea does not coppice well.
Acacia sieberiana	The trees respond well to lopping, pollarding and coppicing. The seedlings need to be protected from fire and browsing.
Adansonia digitata	Once established, the seedlings grow well, becoming 2 m tall in 2 years, and 7 m tall in 10 years. The tree then grows slowly but lives long; under favourable conditions some A. digitata may live for more than 1000 years. There is a prehistoric drawing of an A. digitata tree at the National Museums of Kenya. The trunk may even shrink during periods of severe drought. A. digitata may be pollarded or lopped to encourage abundance of leaves.
Ailanthus triphysa	Containerised stock (commonly in polybags, but also in root trainers) is planted in pits (15-20 cm cube) at 2 x 2 m spacing with the onset of rains, in the case of monospecific woodlots. To suit the requirements of intercropping, the row-to-row spacing can be altered. Seedlings are vulnerable to weeds and shade. Two to three weedings may be necessary in the initial years to keep the plantation weed -free. Fertilizers may be applied @ 30-40 g N, 15-20 g P2O5 and 15-20 g K2O per year per sapling from the second year to the fifth year and thereafter once in three years for a pure plantation. In case too many lateral branches are produced, pruning may be practised. The trees can be felled/harvested over a period of 8 to 10 years. Pollarding is recommended in managing A. triphysa under a 10 year rotation.
Albizia chinensis	In tea plantations in India, the tree is planted at a spacing of about 7-15 m; for fodder production, the trees are grown at a spacing of 3 m x 1 m. At planting a small amount of a mixture of 60 % lime, 30 % superphosphate and 10 % urea is mixed with the soil in each planting hole, to promote early growth. Weeds have to be controlled regularly after transplanting until the plants reach a height of 1 m. Trees grown for shade are left to grow to 7 m tall and then cut back to 4 m. The trees can be harvested for fodder twice a year during the growing season by cutting the stem back to 1 m. It tolerates frequent pruning.
Albizia coriaria	A. coriaria is a slow growing tree, recommended management practices are lopping and pollarding.
Albizia lebbeck	A. lebbeck coppices well, responds to pollarding, pruning and lopping, and will produce root suckers if the roots are exposed. Typical spacing is 3 x 3 m for fuelwood, and 5 x 5 m for timber. Fuelwood plantations spaced at 3 x 3 m clear felled on a 10-year rotation produce about 50 cubic m/ha of stacked fuelwood. In Queensland A. lebbek reaches about 11 m in height and 50 cm dbh in 30 years. The trees are vulnerable to strong winds and are killed by even light fires.
Albizia saman	Trees are planted at a spacing of 1.5-2 m. Owing to its rapid growth, it is possible to plant A. saman in closely spaced plantations where it will produce fewer branches and a longer, straighter bole of timber quality. Under favourable conditions, trees reach a diameter of 18 cm in 5 years. Average annual wood production has been estimated at 25-30 cubic m/ha per year. Grass growing under the tree canopies does not show a decrease in dry matter content, but the fibre content is lower, and the protein content is significantly increased. The tree responds to pruning and coppices well. There is rapid regrowth of lopped and pollarded trees, making it possible for the trees to be used sustainably for fuelwood.
Albizia versicolor	A. versicolor has a medium growth rate and is normally managed by lopping and pollarding.
Albizia zygia	A rapidly growing tree, a two year old tree can be 3 m tall. Has little management needs, however pollarding and coppicing are recommended for form improvement and propagation.
Aleurites moluccana	Seedlings are planted at a density of 300/ha. Once established, trees require little to no attention. Bears 2 heavy crops each year; harvested when mature. In plantations nut yields are estimated at 5-20 t/ha nuts, each tree producing 30-80 kg. Oil production varies from 15 to 20% of nut weight. Most oil produced in India, Sri Lanka and other tropical regions is used locally and does not feature in international trade. Coppices when young and responds to pollarding when old.
Alnus nepalensis	A spacing of 2.5 x 2.5 m is commonly used for plantations, although closer spacing is desirable for a fuelwood crop. A. nepalensis is pollarded for posts. On good sites, poles and fuelwood can be harvested after 5 years. Small-diameter timber can be harvested in less than 10 years. Longer rotations are needed for ordinary saw timber. A. nepalensis coppices after cutting, but successful regrowth seems to depend on seasonal and locality variations, with wet season felling and moist localities being best. Trees develop an extensive lateral root system and are fast growing. A mean annual diameter increment of 2 cm is common, and annual increments of 2.7 m in height and 2.9 cm in diameter have been recorded in Nepal. Alnus species are very susceptible to wind damage.
Anogeissus latifolia	The leaves of the seedlings are killed by severe frost. Young trees are very intolerant of weed competition but can stand light shade when young, however, adult trees are strong light demanders. The tree produces root suckers, coppices and pollards well, but these exhibit great seasonal variability. Coppicing and pollarding should not be done during the rainy season. Thinning of coppice is necesssary. A. latifolia is not very frost tender. Planting is done in 30 cu cm pits, usually after the monsoon rains (July-August). Planting operations must be suspended if no rain is expected for a few days after planting. Plantation areas need protection from animals.
Balanites aegyptiaca	Coppices and pollards well and can regenerate after lopping and heavy browsing. Where fruit is the principal interest, pollarding and coppicing for obtaining fodder are seldom employed.
Berchemia discolor	Plant groups of trees in protected areas in well-drained soil. B. discolor is a good tree to plant at or near watering points, as its roots are not aggressive. The growth rate is relatively fast, 600-800 mm/year. The tree is often found growing naturally near fertile termite mounds, so applying fertilizer at the time of planting may be useful. Tending the crop should include regular watering, slashing and spot weeding until the plants are well established. Coppicing, pollarding and lopping are all practised.
Boswellia serrata	The mixed forests in which B. serrata occurs are worked under selection-cum-improvement or under one of the coppice systems such as the coppice with standards, with a rotation of 40 years, or the coppice with reserve system, with the same rotation age. It produces root suckers, coppices and pollards well. The power to produce these vegetative shoots depends upon the climate and edaphic factors.
Bridelia micrantha	B. micrantha grows fast on good sites; it is one of the fastest growing indigenous trees of South Africa, with a growth rate of up to 2 m/year. Pollarding and coppicing are practised. Coppice shoots are produced after the trees are felled. Root suckers are produced if the roots are wounded, for example by trampling animals or during cultivation. Most of the seedlings and saplings succumb to competition with other weed plants; thus, crop refining could help in promoting natural regeneration. Ripe fruits are very popular with many of the fruit-eating birds, making B. micrantha a must for the bird garden. Farmers in the warm, high-rainfall areas can consider planting trees in a plantation as a long-term project for hardwood production. Trees can be cut when they are 30 years old. B. micrantha has an aggressive root system and cannot be planted close to buildings or paved areas.
Cajanus cajan	For hedgerow intercropping, the hedges should be cut at height of 0.5-1 m when the grain crop is fully mature. The hedges can be cut 2-3 times a year in areas where the dry season lasts 4-6 months. At pod maturity, branches of C. cajan are cut at about 0.5 m. Higher levels of pruning can result in higher and unacceptable levels of plant mortality. As a field crop, C. cajan may be typified as rather undeveloped; the tall genotypes particularly are cumbersome in cultivation. Weeds must be controlled to alleviate slow initial growth. Wind may bend the plants, but staking is not practised. In intensive cropping of short-duration cultivars, irrigation may be required. C. cajan’s response to fertilizers is rarely economic; a phosphate dressing is generally recommended at 20-100 kg/ha.
Calodendrum capense	C. capense is slow growing in most conditions; it coppices while young, and pollarding is a suitable practice. In warm areas with high rainfall, the growth rate can be up to 850 mm/year. Trees can be planted either in the shade or in full sun. They respond well to regular watering, and cut flowers are long lasting in water.
Carica papaya	Weeds must be controlled, especially during the initial stages of establishment. Herbicides, hand weeding, mulching and use of cover crops are some of the practical methods used in the control of weeds. Even though fairly resistant to drought, C. papaya requires a constant water supply. C. papaya is very responsive to fertilizers, and yield can be significantly improved by proper fertilization. Control of pH is also very important. Fruit production begins within a year of planting and is continuous thereafter. C. papaya produces 30-150 fruits/year. As the fruit is formed in the leaf axils, plants must be kept growing continuously for maximum yield. Mature trees may be rejuvenated by cutting back to 30 cm above the ground. The latex should be tapped at least once a week.
Cassia abbreviata	Pollarding, coppicing, trimming and pruning are recommended management strategies. Over-watering results in poor flower display. Root trimming is necessary because the plants develop a long taproot early and should be planted out in 1-2 weeks.
Cassia javanica	C. javanica is not resistant to fire, but tolerates drought and shade. It coppices vigorously and can be pollarded.
Casuarina junghuhniana	Seedlings can attain 3 m growth in height per year during the 1st 2-3 years. In plantations with a controlled water regime in Thailand, C. junghuhniana hybrid reaches 20 m in height and 15 cm in diameter in 5 years. Plantation-grown trees can be harvested throughout the year. In Thailand, a harvesting cycle of 5 years is used for poles and fuelwood planted at a spacing of 2 x 2-3 m. A mean annual increment of 10-15 cubic m/ha is generally obtainable. Weeding is necessary only during the 1st few years, after which the trees shed large amounts of branchlets to form a thick and dense mat of litter that suppresses weeds. The red-tipped C. junghuhniana is a poor self-pruner; it produces strong root suckers. Pruning in plantations up to a height of 2-2.5 m is often necessary to make the plantations more accessible for general maintenance. Trees respond well to coppicing and pollarding.
Celtis australis	Planting out is carried out in December-January (autumn), when seedlings are leafless. Weeding and protection from livestock and fire are essential both in the nursery and after planting. C. australis is a light demander and is adversely affected by drought. The tree pollards and coppices well.
Cinnamomum tamala	Transplanted in the field 2 m apart with a recommended spacing of 3-4 m. Sufficient shade is provided in the early stages of growth, and shade trees are cleared after 8-9 years. The fields are not usually manured or other wise cared for but undergrowth is occasionally removed. The ease with which essential oils can be obtained from this plant’s material makes it ideal for cash crop farming. Leaves are ready for harvesting when trees are 10 years. Tree longevity is up to 100 years, and they continue bearing in old age. Leaves are collected every year from vigorous plants and in alternate years from old and weak ones. Collections are made in dry weather from October-March. Continuous rain diminishes the aroma of the leaves. Small branches with leaves are dried in the sun for 3 or 4 days and tied up into bundles for marketing. The average annual yield per tree is 40-100 kg/tree.
Combretum collinum	The slow-growing trees respond well to coppicing, lopping and pollarding.
Cordia africana	The species grows fairly fast, reaching 7-8 m in 7 years; management practices include pollarding, lopping and coppicing.
Cordia sinensis	The species is fairly fast growing and tolerates lopping, pollarding, and coppicing.
Croton macrostachyus	Trees are fairly fast growing on good sites but grow slowly on drier sites. Lopping, pollarding and coppicing are suitable practices.
Dactyladenia barteri	In traditional cropping systems, D. barteri is retained, planted scattered, or in hedgerows. Established trees coppice well, even after pollarding or burning and are fire resistant. It is planted at a spacing of 2-3 m between the hedgerows in fallow systems in Nigeria. Planted at 4 m x 4m, it can produce 6t/ha dry prunings, 4 ton twigs and 9 ton wood within 8 months with a nutrient yield of 85 kg N, 5 kg P, 43 kg K, 18 kg Ca and 46 kg Mg. At the beginning of the cropping cycle, the shrubs are burnt and the stems cut at a height of 10-20 cm above ground.
Delonix elata	D. elata is a fast growing tree raised easily from seed. Because of its high light requirements, it should be planted in full sunlight. Young seedlings need protection from browsers. Pollarding, lopping and trimming are recommended management practices.
Derris microphylla	Spacing recommended when planting for firewood and timber is 3 m x 3 m, with gradual thinning out to a final spacing after 10 years of 10 m x 10 m. Vetch is slow growing and requires little maintenance. It tolerates pruning and pollarding.
Dichrostachys cinerea	It grows at a medium to slow rate, 6-8 cm/year. For fuelwood plantations, dune stabilization, ravine afforestation, or erosion control, the spacing should be 3 x 5 m; for silvopasture, 8 x 8 m. Dense plantings help stabilize gully plugs and check-dams. To get maximum fuel biomass, the plants should be harvested at 10 years. However, if the production objective is only fodder, trees should be coppiced every other year after reaching about 5-6 m in height. The plant has moderately vigorous coppicing ability and can also be pollarded and lopped. A plant in the range of 7-8.5 cm collar diameter is suitable for coppicing, and the whole plant can be harvested 15 cm above ground level. The number of regenerated shoots varies between 5 and 9, of which 2-3 branches attain better growth in height, diameter and biomass. For soil conservation, the species should not be disturbed in any way. Its prolific root suckers will then provide natural spread for complete ground cover within a few years. Later a fodder harvest can be taken by lopping leaves and pods. In the 6th year, the total aboveground biomass is about 31 kg (dry). Thus an average yield of 3.4 t (1.2 t dry) fodder and 22.8 t (11.1 t dry) firewood may be expected on the 6th year from 1 ha of wasteland. It yields about 1 kg of seed pods/tree. D. cinerea enroaches rapidly on overgrazed, trampled ground and on old lands where the grass cover has been removed. It is difficult to eradicate as it shoots again from portions of root. In certain situations, mechanical or chemical control measures are the only ways to control the potentially serious weed.
Diospyros melanoxylon	The tree is usually kept reserved and is not felled except in clear-felling coupes, as in the coppice-with-reserves working cycle in India. The main source of production of bidi leaves is from the bushes arising from the root suckers; leaves of bigger trees are stiff and brittle and therefore not capable of producing trade leaves for wrapping bidis. The seedlings are normally planted at 2 m by 2 m. Where the objective of management is the production of leaves, heavy pruning is recommended as this promotes vegetative growth and the production of relatively large and thin leaves, although repeated pruning can cause stunted growth of trees. Plants up to 15 cm in girth are cut near the ground to encourage sprouting of coppice shoots, which gives best quality leaves after 40-50 days of operation. Coppicing experiments in India show that best quality of trade leaves are obtained by coppicing flush to the ground level twice, 2 weeks apart, then coppicing flush to the ground only once. The tree also pollards well, although the growth of the pollard shoots is slow. Pollarding is done to obtain a good flush of tender leaves, and plants over 15 cm girth are usually cut at 60-90 cm height. The quality of the leaves also depends on whether the frequency and intensity of pollarding impairs the vitality and growth of the trees. Management for small timber, poles or firewood requires a coppice rotation of about 30 years to give usable products. For ebony wood, a much longer rotation would be needed to give sufficient dimensions to the valuable heartwood.
Erythrina abyssinica	Young trees should be protected from heavy frosts until they are well established. Growth is slow. Pollarding and coppicing are suitable for E. abyssinica. Trees should not be pruned until they are 1 year old. Frequent pruning will reduce the competitive effects of hedgerows and increase the ratio of leaves to stems but will also increase labour costs and reduce total tree biomass production. With its soft wood, E. abyssinica is somewhat easier to prune than other species used in alley farming. It may be advisable to grow the trees with shade-tolerant crops, rather than imposing a severe pruning regime to favour shade-intolerant crops. As a shade tree, it can be established rapidly by planting large stakes, 2.5 m long and 8-10 cm in diameter. Stakes this size can produce a canopy of 3-4 m diameter in 6 months.
Erythrina fusca	Established trees stand regular pruning very well. They start sprouting rapidly and develop strong shoots. E. fusca is managed under a moderate regime of pruning if it is grown as a shade tree for cocoa. The trees are partially pollarded once every 1-2 years, leaving a few branches per tree to regulate light influx to the crop. A 6-month pollarding cycle is used for trees supporting black pepper vines.
Erythrina variegata	Plantation: In India, a spacing of 8-10 m is used when planting E. variegata for shade in coffee plantations; spacing of live stakes for betel and pepper is 2-3 m x 2 m. Husbandry: E. variegata can live to about 100 years. Unpruned trees may attain a height of 15-20 m in 8-10 years. Subsequenly, the growth rate slows down, but the main stem continues to increase in diameter. In general, rooting is superficial, with most roots in the upper 30 cm of the soil; older trees, however, root deeper. When trees are used to support vines, side branches are lopped at interval of 6-8 weeks, the foliage being used as green manure or fodder. When planted for shade, lower branches are removed immediately after establishment and only a few high branches are allowed to grow. Subsequently, the trees are pollarded once per year in the middle of the rainy season. In India, trees used as support for betel vines yield 15-50 kg fodder per year; shade trees in coffee plantations produce about 100 kg fodder and 25-40 kg wood per year.
Fagraea racemosa	Husbandry: Double stems should be removed. Thinning in cycles of 5 years up to the age of 30 years is appropriate for plantations; thereafter every 10 years. The lower branches are very persistent and pruning these promotes height growth. F. racemosa reproduce easily by means of root suckers and coppice freely; locally, trees may be often pollarded for poles.
Ficus religiosa	When managed under vigorous lopping and pollarding, a large crop of fodder is obtained, while controlling excessive crop competition. Protection from livestock browsing and fire is necessary when the trees are young.
Gliricidia sepium	Pruning and pollarding are the main management activities. Pruning at 0.3-1.5 m will stimulate leaf production. Pollarding at 2 m or above is recommended for optimal wood biomass production. Coppicing is used where the primary objective is fuelwood production. G. sepium has been shown to tolerate lopping and browsing.
Grevillea robusta	Moderate to fast growing. When climate and soil are suitable and weed competition is not severe, annual height and diameter increments of at least 2 m and 2 cm, respectively, are usually achieved for the 1st few years in row planting on farms. Annual height increments of 3 m have been observed at the most favourable sites. G. robusta regrows well after complete defoliation following pruning and pollarding, which can be carried out repeatedly to yield wood and to regulate shading and competition with adjacent crops. It is characterized by root suckering, hence it is a good candidate for management under coppice rotation; it responds well to pollarding, lopping and pruning. A plant density of 800-1200 trees/ha is recommended for plantations. Some control of competing vegetation is required for the 1st 1-2 years after planting. Seedlings are normally planted at a spacing of 2.5-3 x 3-4 m. The relatively open canopy of G. robusta makes it less suitable for areas with erosional hazard. It also easily regenerates naturally, especially in agricultural fields. For firewood production, rotations of 10-20 years are applied and annual volume increments of 5-15 cubic m/ha may be expected. A growth reduction after 20 years is reported. The species is known to produce substances toxic to its own seedlings.
Grewia optiva	Planting is done in July in pits dug in summer or at the beginning of the rainy season. Spacing is at 3 x 3 m for block planting and 4-5 m for single row planting along the fields. Plantation area should be protected against browsing, grazing and fire. The tree requires complete overhead light for optimum growth. Severe frost causes die back in seedlings. The tree pollards and coppices well, whippy branches are lopped yearly for fodder and fibre.
Hagenia abyssinica	In Tanzania, trees are planted or wildings are allowed to grow, interspersed throughout a field at a density of about 10 trees/ha. To reduce light competition with crop and foster marketable bole development, the trees are pruned once each year in November, about two months before planting crops at the onset of the rainy season. Typically, annual prunings of mature trees remove 40-50% of the canopy height. Pollarding is also a suitable silvicultural practice.
Hardwickia binata	The tree thrives in a dry climate and is capable of establishing itself and growing on dry shallow soil and rocky ground where most other species would succumb. This is due partly to the early development of the taproot and the ability to penetrate hard soil and fissures in solid rock (the stem usually dying back annually during development of the taproot) and partly to its ability to withstand mutilation. Young trees can withstand some shade and may even require artificial shading. Later they are moderately light demanding. In heavily grazed areas the plant assumes a characteristic bushy form. The tree pollards well even up to a comparatively advanced age, and old pollards when repollarded almost invariably produce abundant new shoots. However, the tree coppices poorly. Old trees, which send out vigorous pollard shoots if cut 1 or 2 m above the ground, produce no coppice shoots if cut flush with the ground; old pollards when felled at ground level never coppice.
Leucaena diversifolia	The aggressive nature and profuse growth of L. diversifolia occasionally make it a weed; seedlings can be controlled effectively by spraying them with diesel oil at the 3-5 leaf stage. Established trees can be controlled by impregnating freshly cut stumps of a basal diameter of 1-20 cm with diesel oil. The treatment should be repeated on coppiced stumps. Delaying application until 1 day after cutting reduces its efficacy.
Leucaena leucocephala	L. leucocephala is a vigorous coppicer and responds well to pollarding and pruning. Coppiced stems sprout 5-15 branches, depending on the diameter of the cut surface, and 1-4 stems dominate after a year of regrowth. Wood yields from L. leucocephala over short (3-5 year) rotations compare favourably with other species, ranging from 3-4 m in height/year and 10-60 cubic m/ha a year. On less favourable sites, as in cooler tropical highland areas, on acid soils, or under high psyllid pressure, yields have often been disappointing, and under such conditions other species of Leucaena or other genera generally outperform L. leucocephala. High plant densities are recommended for solid fodder. Fodder yields range from 40 to 80 t/ha when moisture is not limiting.
Melia azedarach	Under optimal conditions, M. azedarach grows fast. It is generally deciduous, but some forms in the humid tropics (e.g. in Malaysia and Tonga) are evergreen. Does not coppice well from large stumps, but excellent coppice is obtained from trees up to a girth of 0.9 m. The tree resprouts after cutting and regrows after pollarding, making it suitable for pole production.
Melia volkensii	Almost all growers plant M. volkensii irregularly dispersed within crops, generally at spacing in excess of 10-15 m. Some farmers plant trees along boundaries but rarely near dwellings as branches tend to break off during storms. The tree tends to develop heavy lateral branching; therefore farmers prune M. volkensii from the 1st year onwards to maintain a clean straight bole. When the crown is fully developed, it is thinned heavily each year to reduce shading on underplanted crops like sorghum and millet. The operation is carried out in the dry season to provide clear conditions at planting time. Pruning with the flush of new leaves and fruits coincides with the time when fodder is scarce. Some farmers pollard their trees, believing that this induces an increase in diameter. Many farmers, however, believe that pollarding induces rot and is counter-productive.
Millettia dura	M. dura is a fairly fast growing tree. Can be managed by lopping, coppicing and pollarding.
Mimosa scabrella	M. scabrella is a fast-growing tree. In 14 months it grows to 5 m; in 2 years, 8-9 m; and in 3 years it sometimes reaches a height of 15 m. Plantations have been harvested on rotations as short as 3 years. Fuelwood plantations in Brazil are commonly planted at spacings of 2 x 2 or 3 x 3 m and harvested on 3-7 year rotations. Planted in Costa Rica at a spacing of 4 x 5 m in deep, fertile, well-drained fertilized coffee plantations, it reaches 5-6 m in height and 8-11 cm in dbh at 16 months. It is not a good hedgerow species because it does not coppice, though it can be pollarded or pruned effectively.
Moringa oleifera	Moringa is an extremely fast-growing tree, and within 1-3 months trees reach 2.5 m. Constant pruning of up to 1.5 m/year is suggested to obtain a thick-limbed and multibranched shrub. Trees are commonly grown for their leaves, and topping-out is useful to keep an abundant supply of leaves, pods and flowers within easy reach. M. oleifera responds well to mulch, water and fertilizer. Growth is stunted in areas with a high water table. It coppices and pollards well.
Pachystela msolo	P. msolo is a very slow-growing tree. Pollarding seems to increase the quantity of fruit it produces.
Piliostigma thonningii	Young individuals are susceptible to annual fires. The fire resistance strategy of P. thonningii is by quick regrowth of aboveground structures. Management practices recommended for this species include lopping, pollarding, trimming and coppicing.
Pistacia integerrima	Management by pruning, lopping, and pollarding improves the tree form factor of P. integerrima. The tree should be protected from browsers P. integerrima seedlings are susceptible to strongly alkaline soils. This is a light demanding species. A nursery time of 12-18 months is recommended. Rhizoctonia solani is controlled in the nursery by the addition of pentachloronitrobenzene [quintozene] in planting medium and by maintaining clean greenhouse benches.
Pongamia pinnata	Seedling survival and growth benefit from annual weed control for the first 3 years after transplanting. Growth of young trees is fairly slow; a growth of 1.3 m in height and 0.4 cm in diameter in 13 months was recorded in India. Trees coppice well and can also be pollarded. When planted as a shade or ornamental tree, pruning may be necessary to obtain a trunk of appropriate height. The spacing adopted in avenue planting is about 8 m between plants. In block plantings, the spacing can range from 2 x 2 m to 5 x 5 m. The lateral spread of roots on this species, about 9 m in 18 years, is greater than most other species; moreover it produces root suckers profusely. Because of these characteristics, pongam is unsuitable for agroforestry and has the potential to become a weed if not managed carefully. Individual trees yield 9-90 kg of pods annually, while mature trees yield 8-24 kg of seeds annually.
Populus ciliata	P. ciliata is a light demander, pollards vigorously, has poor coppicing power except in the case of young trees, and produces root suckers abundantly. The trees growing in the open develop broad, long crowns and exhibit poor self-pruning. It is susceptible to fire especially seedling and saplings regeneration which are killed even by light fire; mature trees survive light ground fire but crown fire kills them. When the trees are managed for fodder, they are closely spaced and managed under an intensive coppice system. All-purpose management system involves a thinning in the 7th or 8th year, removing 50% of the tree for pulp production. Clear felling is done at 10-15 years. Regeneration of a new crop is through replanting. Besides depth, water-holding capacity is an important factor determining the establishment and growth of P. ciliata.
Pterocarpus indicus	P. indicus behaves like a pioneer and grows best in the open. Seedlings are slower growing than cuttings and exhibit considerable variation in vigor. A strict culling program would be necessary to ensure that only the best stocks are planted out. Rooted cuttings can be established readily on nearly all kinds of soils, from coastal sands to inland clays, in urban and garden situations, and even in quite small planting holes dug into pavements. However, establishment trials in forest areas have had mixed results and some have failed. The reasons are not clear. With a little practice, it is easy to distinguish a healthy tree by its luxuriant foliage from one that is thinly leafed and stressed. Under favorable conditions, trees in Singapore have been known to grow an average of 33 m in height and 1.55 m in girth in 11 years, or an average annual increment of 1.2 m height and 14 cm girth. Urban trees in Singapore are fertilized with compound fertilizer at the rate of 0.5, 1, and 15 kg /tree /annum in the first, second, and third years of growth. Subsequently, they get 3-5 kg per tree per annum depending on their size. The fertilizer is spread evenly on the soil under the tree crown and is applied once a year. Where the area of the soil is smaller than the crown (e.g. for trees planted in pavements and road dividers), the fertilizer is divided into two or more smaller applications. As an urban tree, P. indicus is relatively wind-firm and seldom suffers branch breakage. Trees of all sizes and ages easily regenerate new shoots when lopped or pollarded. In Papua New Guinea, logged forest trees readily regenerate new plants from the roots.
Pterocarpus santalinoides	Pollarding, coppicing and lopping are recommended management practices for P. santalinoides.
Quercus semecarpifolia	This oak can be raised either by direct sowing or by planting out nursery raised seedlings. Slow growth, heavy grazing and dense growth of weeds hamper its establishment. For the establishment of natural reproduction, abundant overhead light is essential and often, dense thickets of young oak come up near the isolated mother trees or on the edge of stands, where the canopy is opened out. For raising nursery seedlings, sowing is done in July, in lines 20cm apart and about 2cm deep. Seed from fresh collection should only be used. The nursery is irrigated and weeded regularly. During the following summer, the seedlings are spaced about 10 cm in lines. 2 year-old seedlings are planted out with balls of earth in July-August in 30 cm³ pits. Spacing for the plantation may be 2.5m x 2.5m. Winter planting is not successful. Bagged plants can also be used. This oak is a light-demander and fails to establish under shade. It coppices and pollards fairly well, the latter in particular are liable to snow-break. Out of the large number of coppice shoots, a few eventually survive and the remainder are suppressed. The growth of coppice-shoots is slow. Young pole and tree may also suffer from load of snow and get uprooted. Young growth is susceptible to fire also.
Ricinodendron heudelotii	Stand establishment is mainly through direct sowing and planting stock. The species is suited for coppicing and pollarding.
Sapium ellipticum	Trees respond well to coppicing and pollarding.
Schinus molle	Reaches maturity in less than 20 years. Has a low-branching habit, and pruning of lower branches is recommended when the tree is young if clearance beneath is desired and to reduce the chances of the tree being blown over. Coppicing, pollarding and lopping also are viable methods of managing the tree. Planting the trees away from buildings will avoid possible damage from the fall of heavy branches as trees age.
Senna atomaria	Trials in Somalia report satisfactory plantation establishment of S. atomaria without irrigation. Good growth rates (sufficient for fuelwood production) were found on sandy rainfed sites with S. atomaria. Pollarding and coppicing seem not to adversely affect this plant.
Strychnos innocua	Protection of the natural habitat from forest fires helps in promoting natural regeneration. Seedlings should be planted where there has been partial clearing of herbaceous vegetation, and management practices carried out include pruning, lopping and pollarding.
Syzygium cordatum	Pollarding is practised to produce close, rounded heads of young branches. Groves of this tree should be planted around water points, springs or on banks of streams or rivers. This is one of southern Africa’s fastest growing trees (up to 1m/year), with a rather aggressive root system. If there is limited space, trees can be grown in containers, in which case they will flower and fruit at an earlier age.
Syzygium guineense	S. guineense is planted on cleared sites, tolerates pollarding and is able to coppice. The species is sensitive to crown competition and is a strong light demander, thus it could be necessary to refine the crop in natural forests to distribute growth potential to trees.
Tamarindus indica	Growth is generally slow; seedling height increasing by about 60 cm annually. The juvenile phase lasts up to 4-5 years, or longer. Young trees are pruned to allow 3-5 well-spaced branches to develop into the main scaffold structure of the tree. After this, only maintenance pruning is required to remove dead or damaged wood. Trees generally require minimal care, but in orchards in Thailand’s central delta, intensive cropping is practised. This is possible because grafted trees come to bear within 3-4 years. Sweet cultivars are planted and good early crops limit extensive growth; presumably the high water table, which prevents deep rooting, also helps to dwarf the trees. Size-control measures include close spacing (about 500 trees/ha) and pruning to rejuvenate the fruiting wood. The trees also respond to coppicing and pollarding. When establishing a pure plantation, spacing should be at least 13 x 13 m. Distance can be reduced with vegetatively propagated plants, as they do not attain the same size as seeded trees. Smaller trees are easier to harvest. The tree may remain productive until it reaches old age, yielding up to 150 kg/tree or over 2 t/ha a year.
Teclea nobilis	A moderate to slow growing tree. Can be managed by coppicing and pollarding.
Terminalia arjuna	Arjun, an initial slow-grower, later grows very fast to attain 2–3 m height in 3 years. Weeding and protection from fire and frost is needed for the first two years. Pruning is required to remove the weaker shoots when forking takes place due to frost damage. Selection management systems can be utilized to extract timber, which is 50-60 cm dbh. Arjun has been successfully grown in taungya plantations. Plantations established in India for tasar sericulture, have a spacing of 1 x 2 m, and are managed by repeated pollarding. It also coppices strongly if cut when smaller than approximately 76 cm dbh, yielding poles, posts and firewood. It produces root suckers and is suitable for pollarding.
Terminalia bellirica	The species is a light demander and fairly drought resistant. It coppices well after pollarding especially if planted on a wide spacing. Spacing of 3-4 m apart in pure plantation is common. Good protection from grazing is required.
Tipuana tipu	T. tipu is a fast growing species that responds well to pollarding, coppicing and lopping. Trees are shallow rooted therefore should not be planted close to buildings as they are likely to be blown over by wind. They should be transplanted from their containers in cool weather, and the young plants should be staked and watered until roots are established. Planting in highly alkaline soil should be avoided. Occasional pruning and deep waterings is recommended, once the hardy plants are established.
Uapaca kirkiana	In natural stands, the trees coppice well after cutting or pollarding. Grows slowly when it is not managed, but growth rates improve tremendously with inoculation and weeding. Total fire protection of planted stands is mandatory for successful establishment, after which, the use of fire as a management tool could be applied as appropriate.
Vangueria madagascariensis	Coppicing and pollarding are suitable management practices. The crop is mostly semi-cultivated on farms. Because it is a light demander, the planting area should be cleared of most other vegetation. Weeding the crop until it is well established is essential.
Zanthoxylum chalybeum	Coppicing and pollarding are recommended.
Ziziphus mucronata	Z. mucronata is very adaptable, growing in all types of soil and standing intense heat and cold equally well. A fast-growing tree, under good conditions it will reach a height of 4-6 m in 4-5 years. Can be managed through lopping, pollarding and coppicing. Trees can be planted as scattered groups of 10-20 individuals to act initially as fodder trees and later as shade. Young trees must be protected from browsing cattle. The root system is not aggressive.