Agroforestree database This database provides detailed information on a total of 670 agroforestry tree species. It is intended to help field workers and researchers in selecting appropriate species for agroforestry systems and technologies. For each species, the database includes information on identity, ecology and distribution, propagation and management, functional uses, pests and diseases and a bibliography. This project has been funded by the British Department for International Development (DFID, the European Union and the World Agroforestry Centre (ICRAF). |
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| Abelmoschus moschatus | It is in flower from July to September, and the seeds ripen from August to October. The scented flowers are hermaphrodite (have both male and female organs) and are pollinated by Insects. |
| Acacia aulacocarpa | Trees generally start to flower after 3 years. Insects, especially bees, are believed to be the main pollinating agent. Seeds mature 4-5 months after flowering; it is not unusual for A. aulacocarpa to produce 2 seed crops a year. |
| Acacia auriculiformis | Acacia auriculiformis is hermaphroditic and pollinated by a wide range of insects including Coleoptera, Diptera, Hemiptera, Hymenoptera and Lepidoptera, which forage mainly on pollen. |
| Acacia erioloba | A. erioloba hybridizes with A. haematoxylon, and the resulting progeny looks extremely similar to A. erioloba but has glands on the pods typical of A. haematoxylon. Trees usually flower at about 10 years, and by 20 years they can produce regular crops of large pods. In the Kuiseb River Valley, Namibia, trees produce no pods until they are more than 3 m high and develop spreading canopies. It is among the 1st acacias to flower in early spring, August to October in southern Africa, on the previous year’s growth. The main flowering period is in the spring but it can start in winter and end in summer. At the peak of its flowering period the temperatures are likely to be high, frosts infrequent and thunderstorms unusual. Trees are insect pollinated with greater insect activity during the early hours of the morning before sunrise. The indehiscent pods, which ripen in autumn and winter, are favoured by large browsing herbivores, which disperse the seeds. |
| Acacia holosericea | Like most acacias, A. holosericea relies on sexual reproduction. It produces a large number of flowers, a small proportion of which develops into fruit. It is pollinated by the activity of insects and birds. Seed dispersal is prompted by propulsion from drying dehiscent pods. Browsing vertebrates sometimes also play a role in seed dispersal. In its native range in Australia, The main flowering period is June-August but can be April-October. Fruits mature in August-October. |
| Acacia karroo | The species has a mixed mating system. It exhibits a tendency towards out-crossing, as evidenced by the existence of trees that are entirely male. It is zoomophilus, principally insect pollinated because the strong colour of inflorescence and the heavy pollen grains attract insects. Isolated plants bear no fruits. Pollinators include the Coleoptera, Diptera, Hymenoptera and Lepidoptera. Pods are dehiscent on the trees but not explosive; hence dispersal is principally by cattle and other herbivores ingesting seed and voiding them through their dung. |
| Acacia koa | Observations suggest A. koa can flower almost any time of year, depending upon local weather conditions. One known pollinator of A. koa is the honeybee (Apis mellifera). A. koa appears to be self-fertilizing. Pods reach maturity at 4-6 months, depending on location and weather conditions. |
| Acacia mangium | A. mangium flowers precociously, and viable seed can be harvested 24 months after planting. From the onset of flower buds to pod maturity is about 6-7 months. The tree is a hermaphrodite and generally outcrosses, with a tendency towards selfing. Pollinators are generally insects, Trigona and Apis spp. being the active pollen vectors. A. mangium starts to flower and produce seeds 18-20 months after planting. Mature fruits occur 3-4 months after planting period. In its native range in Australia, flowers are present in May and the seeds mature in October-December. The fruits mature in July in Indonesia and late September in Papua New Guinea. |
| Acacia mearnsii | A. mearnsii is a hermaphrodite and flowers profusely in the winter. Trees begin to yield fertile seed from the age of 5 years, giving good annual crops. The minute, fragrant flowers are self-fertile, but cross-pollination occurs. Bees are the main pollinators. Pods mature in 14 months, and gravity or propulsion from drying dehiscent pods initiates seed dispersal. In Nigrils, India, A. mearnsii flowers mainly in January-February and sporadically all year round; pods in April-May. In Australia, flowering takes place between October and December and fruits mature in 12-14 months. |
| Acacia melanoxylon | Flowering is variable throughout the species range. In the northern part of Australia, flowering tends to be in the late winter-spring while in the southern part, in the spring-summer. Ripe seeds are available in the summer-autumn with mid-February peak and little seed is retained on branches beyond April. Insects pollinate the flowers. |
| Acacia nilotica subsp nilotica | The yellow sweetly scented flowers are nectarless and found in round heads. Most flowers are functionally male with a few hermaphrodites and are mainly bee-pollinated. Leaf production and fall are affected by rainfall whereas temperature affect flowering and fruiting. In Sudan A. nilotica flowers irregularly but generally between June and September and seed fall takes place from March to May. In Australia trees flower from March to June and green pods are produced within four months but ripe pods fall from November to February. Most of the leaf fall occurs during the dry period when the tree bears green pods. |
| Acacia polyacantha ssp. polyacantha | Like most acacias, flowering depends highly on the rains. The cream-white, sessile flowers are inserted in spikes up to 15 cm long. They are produced together with new leaves. After pollination by insects, straight fruits with distinctly narrow, thickened margin are developed within 6 months, fruits are tapered on both ends. When mature the pods turn greyish-brown. The seeding period can be observed approximately 6 months after flowering. |
| Acacia senegal | A. senegal is presumably insect pollinated. Flowering starts from June to July in Sudan, December to January in South Africa, February to March in Pakistan, and August to December in India. Fruits ripen in January in Burkina Faso, July-September in Kenya, August in Pakistan, October in South Africa, and November-December in southern and central Niger. The wind shakes seeds from the dehiscent pods, and sheet wash and grazing animals may extend the seed dispersal range. |
| Acacia seyal | Bees are the likely pollinators. Flowers are borne in profusion and are spicy scented or sweet smelling. The seeds of A. s. var. seyal are locally dispersed in large amounts and have been found deposited in animal feces along transhumance routes. No dispersal mechanism has been located for A. seyal var. fistula. Flowering is concentrated in the middle of the dry season, with ripe fruits appearing 4 months later. |
| Adansonia digitata | Mostly bats (Ephormorphus wahlbergii and Rousettus aegyptiacus) pollinate the flowers. The flowers emit what some describe as a strong carrion smell, which is presumably attractive to the bats; it is also known to attract the bluebottle fly (Chrysomyia marginalis) and at least 3 nocturnal moths: American bollworm (Heliothis armigera), red bollworm (Diparopsis castanea) and spring bollworm (Earias biplaga). In East Africa, the bush baby (Galago crassicaudatus) feeds nocturnally on the flowers, thus aiding in pollination. In southern Africa the tree flowers from October to December and fruits from April to May. |
| Afzelia quanzensis | In Kenya, A. quanzensis flowers in March and April, followed by a seeding period from October to December. In Zambia, flowers appear between July and November and the pods mature about 1 year later. In southern Africa, flowering occurs from October to December and fruiting from April to August. Flowers are attractive to insects, which may be the pollinating agents. Hornbills open the freshly split pods to eat the red arils and in the process discard the seeds, dropping them to the ground, where they germinate if rodents do not eat them. |
| Albizia amara | The yellow or pinkish-white, fragrant flower heads appear mainly in the rainy season, and the fruits ripen in the cold season. |
| Aleurites moluccana | In Sri Lanka, the flowering period is from April to May. In Uganda, flowering may be several times each year. Pollen vectors are honeybees and other hymenopteran species. Major dispersal agents of the fruits are birds. |
| Allanblackia floribunda | Flowering occurs in September to February with fruits developing slowly, but in Nigeria they are available in most seasons. Short-tongued insects pollinate this species. Monkeys such as Lophocebus albigena, Cercopithecus pogonias, Cercopithecus cephus, Cercopithecus pogonias and Cercopithecus nictitans eat the flowers and fruits, thus dispersing the seeds. |
| Allanblackia stuhlmannii | The falling of mature fruits and flowering occur simultaneously. Flowering begins in November through February during the short rains. Fruiting occurs a year after fertilization (January through April). Short-tongued insects pollinate this species. Rodents and monkeys such as Lophocebus albigena, Cercopithecus aethiops, Cercopithecus cephus, Cercopithecus pogonias and Cercopithecus nictitans eat the flowers and fruits, thus dispersing the seeds |
| Allanblackia ulugurensis | Flowering occurs in October to January. Fruits start to ripen in December and continue until February. Insects pollinate this species. Rodents and monkeys eat the flowers and fruits, thus dispersing the seeds |
| Anacardium occidentale | Flies, bees and ants as well as wind carry out pollination. Bees promote greater pollination because scented flowers and sticky pollen grains attract them. Bagged inflorescence does not produce nuts unless it is hand pollination or insects are allowed inside. Self-pollination is also possible, as nuts have developed from hand-pollinated, bagged inflorescence. |
| Annona cherimola | A problem with the cherimoya is inadequate natural pollination because the male and female structures of each flower do not mature simultaneously. Few insects visit the flowers. Therefore, hand-pollination is highly desirable and must be done in a 6-8 hour period when the stigmas are white and sticky. It has been found in Chile that in the first flowers to open the pollen grains are loaded with starch, whereas flowers that open later have more abundant pollen, no starch grains, and the pollen germinates readily. Partly-opened flowers are collected in the afternoons and kept in a paper bag overnight. The next morning the shed pollen is put, together with moist paper, in a vial and transferred by brush to the receptive stigmas. Usually only a few of the flowers on a tree are pollinated each time, the operation being repeated every 4-5 days in order to extend the season of ripening. The closely related A. senegalensis, if available, is a good source of abundant pollen for pollinating the cherimoya, that of the sugar apple is not satisfactory. Fruits from hand-pollinated flowers are normally superior in form and size. The leaves are briefly deciduous (just before spring flowering). The flowers appear with new growth flushes in April to mid-summer and fruits ripen from October to May in California. |
| Annona muricata | Flowers are protandrous, and the pollen is shed as the outer petals open towards the evening. The inner petals open much later and only very slightly, admitting small insects attracted by the fragrance of the flowers. Beetles of several species are important in carrying out natural pollination. Presumably these insects effect cross-pollination, though rather inadequately, for few flowers set fruit and many fruits are misshapen since numerous ovules are not fertilized. Hand pollination is effective in improving fruit yield and quality. Fruiting starts in the 2nd year, and 5-year-old trees produce 10-50 fruits, depending on pollination efficiency and nutrient status. Sporadic flowering and fruiting can occur all year round in favourable conditions. |
| Annona senegalensis | The flowers of Annona genus have both male and female parts, but the stigmas are generally not receptive at the time the pollen is shed. Beetles of several species are important in carrying out natural pollination. But complete pollination seldom occurs, explaining the frequency of misshapened fruits. Hand pollination may improve both yield and quality of the fruit. In Sudan, trees flower and fruit in April to May. |
| Arbutus unedo | Strawberry flowers are hermaphrodite, self-fertile and pollinated by bees. It begins blooming in autumn and continues into the winter. The fruit takes 9-12 months to ripen hence both mature fruit and flowers are existent at the same time with an incredible beauty. |
| Artocarpus altilis | A. altilis trees are monoecious -- male and female flowers occur separately on the same tree. Male inflorescence emerges before the female. Pollen is shed 10-15 days after the emergence of the male inflorescence, for a period of about 4 days. Female flowers are receptive 3 days after the emergence of the female inflorescence from the bracts and open in successive stages, with basal flowers opening 1st. As with other members of its genus, A. altilis is cross-pollinated. Honeybees have been observed actively working the male inflorescence and collecting pollen, especially from fertile, seeded accessions. Other insects such as earwigs have also been observed on the male inflorescence. Only a few flowers in the male inflorescence of seedless A. altilis produce and release pollen. Pollen grains from fertile cultivars are uniformly shaped and stain well, while triploid cultivars have the lowest pollen sustainability, averaging 6-16%. Pollen grains are typically malformed, clumped and poorly stained. A. altilis is diploid (2n = 56) and triploid (2n = 84). Asexually propagated trees start fruiting in 3-6 years. |
| Artocarpus heterophyllus | Trees start flowering and fruiting 2-8 years after planting. Flower and fruit loads are initially low and improve with increasing size and age; trees 2 years old produce about 25 flowers and 3 fruits; trees 5 years old bear as many as 840 flowers, and trees 6 years old 1500 flowers. However, only 15-18 fruits develop due to the low production of female spikes (about 0.6-5% of the total number of inflorescences). Young trees bear more male than female flowers at a ratio of 4:1; production of female flower increases with age. A male-to-female ratio of 2:1 produces 250 fruits per tree, and as the trees ages, fruit productivity declines. In suitable environments trees bear fruits and flowers throughout the year, but in areas with distinct dry and wet seasons, flowering occurs in the wet season. In young trees, fruits are usually borne on branches and in older trees, on trunks and roots. The tree is wind and insect pollinated. Insects normally visit the scented male flowers, which release pollen that is carried to female flowers by the wind. Wilting and drying stigmas are the best indicators of fruit set. Fruits mature in 80-160 days, and a sweet and strong aroma indicates that the fruit is ripe. |
| Artocarpus lakoocha | In Nepal the trees flower in April, towards the end of the dry season. Ripe fruits are collected from the end of June to early August in most places but there can be considerable variations. The tree is deciduous, dropping its leaves for a short time at the beginning of the dry season. The fragrant flowers indicate insect pollination. Birds and monkeys usually disperse the seeds |
| Aucomea klaineana | In Oukomé trees, new leaves appear from September to December and are bright red for about a week. Trees start to flower when they are about 10 years old, but fruiting only begins after 15 years. Flowering starts in August and lasts for 1-2 months depending on weather conditions. Individual flowers last for a few days and are insect pollinated (bees and flies). Fruiting starts in September with fruits growing to full-size in about 40 days, but mature after about 80 days. Fruiting is annual, but large quantities of seeds are produced only every 2-3 years. A healthy, dominant mature tree can produce up to 20 000 seeds. Seeds are wind-dispersed up to 80 m from the parent tree. |
| Averrhoa carambola | Heterostyly and self-incompatibility occur in A. carambola. Pollen grains are elongated or spherical; a suitable pollen viability test would be in vitro pollen germination. A. carambola is insect pollinated, the pollinators being honeybees and Diptera species. Flowering continues throughout the year and fruit is available most of the year. Seedling varieties should crop in 3-8 years, selected grafted varieties in only 1-2 years. |
| Azadirachta indica | A. indica trees may start flowering and fruiting at the age of 4-5 years, but economic quantities of seed are produced only after 10-12 years. Pollination is by insects such as honeybees. Certain isolated trees do not set fruit, suggesting the occurrence of self-incompatibility. The flowering and fruiting seasons largely depend on location and habitat. In Thailand for instance, neem flowers and fruits throughout the year whereas in East Africa (with pronounced dry and wet season) flowering and fruiting are restricted to distinct periods. Fruits ripen in about 12 weeks from anthesis and are eaten by bats and birds, which distribute the seed. They can live for over 200 years. |
| Balanites aegyptiaca | Flowering behaviour varies. There is no definite time for flowering in the Sahel, although flowering most likely takes place in the dry season. Flowering in Nigeria varies between November and April with ripe fruits becoming available in December and January and occasionally later, from March to July. Elsewhere, fruiting and foliage production occur at the height of the dry season. Pollination is presumably by insects as flowers are scented, and flower structure facilitates insect activity. The 1st fruiting is at 5-8 years, yields increasing until 25 years of age for the tree. The fruit apparently takes at least 1 year to mature and ripen. Birds and mammals eat the fleshy and edible fruit, discarding, regurgitating or evacuating the stone. |
| Barringtonia racemosa | Half the flowers bloom simultaneously. Pollination of the fragrant flowers is generally by bats or insects (mainly moths), which are attracted to the copious nectar. After shedding the flowers, the inflorescences are often crowded with ants attracted by the nectar. A comparatively high percentage of the fruit is seedless. As the fibrous coat makes the fruit buoyant in water, it may be carried great distances. |
| Bertholletia excelsa | B. excelsa begins flowering during the drier months, and the flowers drop soon after opening during the early part of the season. B. excelsa trees are self-incompatible, and the hooded bisexual flowers prevent wind pollination. Flowers are pollinated by bees in the genera Xylocarpa, Bombus, Centris, Epicaris and Eulaema. A pronounced dry season is necessary for good fruit set. Fruiting starts at 12-16 years in the forest and as early as 8 years if trees are well managed in the open. Mature nuts are produced approximately 15 months after fertilization and take 1 year to ripen. Nuts are dispersed mainly by rodents. |
| Bixa orellana | The flowers are pollinated by honeybees, and the fruit matures 5-6 months later. Seed-grown plants take longer to flower than vegetatively propagated ones, and do so sparingly. Under favourable conditions, fruiting commences 18 months from planting or earlier, and full crops of seeds are obtained after 3-4 years. In Puerto Rico and the Virgin Islands, flowering occurs mainly in spring and fruiting chiefly in the summer. |
| Bombacopsis quinata | B. quinata is a monoecious species that is highly self-incompatible. It flowers at the beginning of the dry season. The stigmas of the flower protrude slightly from the anther, which appears to be an adaptation to avoid self-pollination. When the flower opens, the pistil is receptive and the pollen on the anthers is ready to be transported by pollinating agents, primarily bats (Glossophaga sorisina) and occasionally nocturnal moths. The bats are attracted to the flowers by the nectar located in nectar sacs in the ovary. Pollination occurs as the pollinators move among the trees to collect nectar. Capsule ripens after 3-4 months, releasing wind-dispersed seeds. |
| Boscia senegalensis | The tree is evergreen and the young leaves start to grow before the rains. It flowers in the cool dry season (October to January) in most parts of its natural range and the fruits ripen at the beginning of the rainy season. The flowers have a sweet penetrating odour suggesting insect pollination. |
| Brachylaena huillensis | B. huillensis is a dioecious plant. The male has 2-3 times as many capitula as the female in each branch of the inflorescence. The flowers are small, and dissection of newly opened flowers and buds just about to open reveals no nectar. Flowering coincides with the rainy seasons. In Kenya, B. huillensis flowers twice a year, between mid-April and the end of June and between mid-November and early January. The flowers develop slowly for the next 2-3 months until the next rainy season. Opening is delayed until the rains come, and should they fail, all the buds shrivel and the next season’s buds start to appear. Male flowers almost always open earlier than female one. Bees collect and feed on pollen, which is possibly the main attraction of these flowers. Other pollinators include small flies such as Aprostocetus spp., Eupelmus spp., Mesopolopus spp., Pteromalus spp. and Trupanea albicans. The period available for fertilization is brief, and the development and maturation of the fruit is very rapid. About 10-20% of the seeds are sound at dispersal. |
| Brachystegia spiciformis | Flowering and fruiting depend on the climatic conditions of a certain year and do not occur every year. In southern Africa, flowering occurs from August to November and fruiting from May to August. The flowers are popular with bees, which probably pollinate them. After pollination, fruit development takes 7-8 months. The species hybridizes readily with B. glaucescens and B. microphylla. |
| Bruguiera gymnorhiza | B. gymnorhiza usually exhibits a mix-mating system, mainly outcrossing. It’s pollinated by birds, insects and wind. |
| Bursera simaruba | May be either dioecious or monoecious. In Mexico, insects, especially honeybees, pollinate it. Mammals and birds disperse the seeds. |
| Calliandra calothyrsus | Flowering may start in the 1st year, but good fruit set starts in the 2nd year. Protandrous flowering and the difference in length between the stamens and style indicate out-crossing; the species has a low tolerance of selfing. Pollination is by insects and bats, for example honeybees that collect nectar and pollen; fruits ripen 3 months after anthesis. The actual dates of flowering and fruiting are extremely variable, both within and between populations. The time between flowering and fruit maturity can range from 55 to 90 days and is dependent on environmental conditions during the ripening phase, thus making the exact timing of seed collection unpredictable. The dispersal mechanism of C. calothyrsus seed is that of explosive apical dehiscence generated by drying tensions in the pod walls. |
| Calodendrum capense | Trees start flowering when 6-8 years old. In southern Africa, the flowering season is usually early summer, but it is erratic, for trees may be seen in full bloom as early as July and as late as March. Fruiting occurs from January to May. Butterflies feed from the flowers and probably pollinate them. Samango, vervet monkeys and various bird species eat fruits and probably disperse the seeds. |
| Calophyllum inophyllum | The bisexual flowers are pollinated by insects such as bees. The flowering and fruiting periods vary. In India, the flowers appear in May-June and sometimes again in November. It has been suggested that apomixis may occur in Calophyllum, resulting in polyembryony. Trees often bear fruit throughout the year. The fruit is dispersed by sea currents and by fruit bats. Hybridization may occur with C. inophyllum as one of the parents. |
| Calotropis procera | Highly cross-pollinated through insects such as monarch butterflies. Progeny genetically both divergent and different from its parents (chromosome number 2n = 22). Both animals and wind disperse seeds. |
| Canarium indicum | The trees flower mainly in the dry season and fruit during the wet season. In Vanuatu, fruits ripen between October and March. In New Britain fruiting occurs twice annually, between August and November and then again from April to May. Insects probably effect pollination. The fruits are dispersed by fruit-eating pigeons, wild pigs, rodents and monkeys, and are occasionally eaten and dispersed by bats. Humans gather the fallen fruits and seeds, and may thus be considered a constraint to the successful dispersal of the species, significantly reducing the natural stand of seedlings in communities and forests |
| Canarium ovatum | Functional hermaphrodites exist in C. ovatum. The inflorescences emerge from the leaf axils of the current season’s growth so that flowering coincides with the annual flush, in the Philippines between March and June. In both male and female trees, the order of blooming of the flowers in the inflorescence is basipetal. Anthesis of male as well as female flowers takes place between 4 and 6 p.m. Anthers dehisce and stigma becomes receptive at anthesis or immediately after it. The flowers are insect pollinated. Fruit set is about 85%. If pollination is successful the ovary begins to enlarge after 1 week and the petals start to drop off. Fruit growth lasts 10 months and follows a sigmoid curve, during which the short, dark green fruitlet ripens into an oblong, purplish-black fruit. On average, seedling trees start producing fruit 5-6 years after planting. Clonal trees bear fruit 3-4 years after planting. |
| Carapa guianensis | Flowering period depends heavily on the climate but is usually concentrated in 1 short period per year. Pollination is probably by insects; trees are often found swarming with ants visiting extrafloral nectaries at shoot apices and leaflet tips. Usually only 1-2 fruits in an inflorescence mature in 8-12 months. Seeds float and are thus dispersed by water but at least in Costa Rica, are also scatter-hoarded by agoutis and occasionally by pigs. |
| Carica papaya | Carica papaya comes into fruiting within 5 months and live for 4-5 years. Usually male and female flowers are on different trees, but some flowers are bisexual. Pollinating agents include various insects such as larger bees (Xylocarpa, Trigona), honeybees, long-tongued sphinx moths (Sphingidae), humming-bird moths (Macroglossa) and wind. With open (uncontrolled) pollination, a cultivar may lose its identity in a few generations. |
| Carissa edulis | In southern Africa, for example, flowering occurs from September to December and fruiting from November to January. Insects pollinate the bisexual flowers. Fruits are animal dispersed. |
| Ceiba pentandra | Flowers open at night, emitting a powerful odour and secreting nectar at the base of the large, bisexual flowers. The pollen is sticky, and the shape of the flowers suggests cross-pollination, although self-pollination may occur when stamens and stigmas of adjacent flowers of the same tree come into contact. Flowers open soon after dark and fruit bats visit them. Hawk moths and several other small moths also visit the flowers at night and many bees visit soon after dawn. Seeds are widely disseminated and find ideal conditions for germination in abandoned agricultural land. |
| Ceratonia siliqua | C. siliqua is a dioecious tree with some hermaphroditic forms; male, female and hermaphroditic flowers are generally borne on different trees. Unisexual and bisexual flowers are rare in the same inflorescence. The flowers are initially bisexual, but usually 1 sex is suppressed during the development of functionally male or female flowers. C. siliqua is the only Mediterranean tree with the main flowering season in autumn (September-November). However, the time and the length of the flowering period depend on local climatic conditions, as with most fruit and nut trees. Carob bean size is a highly variable character, influenced by many environmental factors as well as level of pollination and fruit set. Pollen dispersal is by insects, mainly bees, flies, wasps and night-flying moths. Flowers of all 3 types secrete nectar; the volume of nectar and its sugar content are higher in female flowers than in male. Male and hermaphroditic flowers emit a semen-like odour that attracts insects. Harvesting is the major cost in carob production. Collecting operations depend on yield, size and shape of pod, and orchard density. |
| Cinchona pubescens | C. pubescens start flowering in 3-4 years. The sweetly scented, tube-shaped flowers are pollinated mainly by bees and butterflies. Fruits mature about 7-8 months after flowering. Seeds are surrounded by a papery wing, facilitating wind pollination |
| Citrus sinensis | C. sinensis starts flowering and bearing fruit after 3-5 years. In Haiti, trees flower between March and May and fruits mature between November and April. Fruit maturation takes 9-12 months. Trees are hermaphroditic, and insect pollinated. Flower initiation occurs in mid-summer, before the late spring flush. |
| Coffea arabica | The plant is tetraploid, and over 30 mutations have been recognized. In the bisexual flowers, pollen is shed shortly after the flower opens, and the stigma is receptive immediately. Self-pollination can occur, as seed sets even when the flowers are bagged. Pollination is also by honeybees, which collect nectar and pollen from the flowers. Dispersal is mainly by birds and mammals. |
| Colubrina arborescens | C. a arborescens blooms from spring to fall in Puerto Rico and throughout the year in Florida. In Hawaii, the principal fruiting season occurs from May through July, with a smaller harvest from November through January. Insect pollinates the flowers. Besides minor movement by gravity, wind, and water, the fruits pop open when dry to fling the seeds a short distance. |
| Combretum molle | Flowers appear before the leaves and are attractive to insects, which probably pollinate them. Flowering in southern Africa occurs from September to November; in Zambia, between July and October; fruit ripens between June and September. |
| Copaifera langsdorfii | C. langsdorfii shows a tendency towards a tri-annual reproductive pattern and partial deciduousness, with most leaf fall occurring during the dry season. Apis mellifera and Trigona spp. are important pollen vectors for C. langsdorfii. |
| Cordia africana | Flowering starts when trees are 3-5 years old. In Sudan, flowering occurs in October to December and fruiting from January to April; in Kenya, flowering is from April to June. It is repeated at intervals over several weeks and is evidently triggered off by rain showers. After pollination by insects, fruit development takes a period of almost 6 months. Fruit is eaten and probably dispersed by birds. |
| Cordia alliodora | Flowering starts 5-10 years after planting but occasionally when trees are 2 years old. Time of flowering and maturation of the fruit varies with locality. C. alliodora is reported to flower at any season in the equitorial climate of Colombia, while it is more synchronized in Central America. Flowers are heterostylous, and a strong incompatibility mechanism (sporophytic diallelic 1-locus) is evident, with a low level of failure. Pollination is predominantly entomophilous, with the small, unspecialized flowers attracting a wide variety of insect pollinators, especially Lepidoptera. The mature fruit is shed with the withered flower still attached, which acts as a parachute when the fruit falls, and possibly assists wind dispersal. |
| Crotalaria goodiaeformis | C. goodiaeformis is hermaphroditic, its flowers are insect pollinated. |
| Crotalaria juncea | C. juncea is generally sensitive to photoperiod. Long day lengths favour vegetative growth and reduce seed set, although selections exist that are neutral to day length. Sunn hemp, 2n = 16, is generally reported to be self-incompatible. Cross-pollination is extensive, and self-pollination occurs only after the stigmatic surface has been stimulated by insects or some other means. The wings and keel of the flower are articulated by a ball-and-socket joint. When large bees such as Xylocopa spp. and Vegactile spp. alight on the wings, they catalyse the ball-and-piston mechanism that forces the stigma with a mass of pollen against the abdomen of the insect. In Brazil, bees have been found the most frequent pollinators, Xylocopa frontalis being the most frequent (49.7%), then X. grisescens (19.1%). Recently, successful efforts in breeding for self-compatibility have been reported. |
| Crotalaria trichotoma | C. trichotoma flowers are believed to be pollinated by insects before they open, suggesting cleistogamy and self-incompatibility. |
| Croton macrostachyus | In Kenya, flowering is observed in Kakamega District in March and April; in Nyeri, Meru and Kericho Districts in June and July; and in Pokot District in August and September. In Nigeria, flowering occurs in March to May and fruiting from January to March. After pollination by insects, fruit development takes 3-5 months. |
| Croton megalocarpus | After pollination by insects, fruit development takes 5 months and mature fruits can be collected from the ground. In Kenya, seeds mature during October-November in central regions, and from January to March in western regions. C. megalocarpus is monoecious, occasionally dioecious. |
| Cyphomandra betacea | C. betacea is the only member of its genus known to be self-compatible. Flowers are self-pollinating; wind and insects assist in pollen transfer, resulting in better fruit set. Fruit ripens over a period of many months. Pruning may induce flowering; once it begins, maximum fruit production lasts only 4-5 years, for a period of 5 months per year. Fruit production begins 1-2 years after sowing and lasts for 8-12 years. |
| Dacryodes edulis | D. edulis is dioecious. The trees are male, female, or hermaphroditic. Male trees may produce a limited number of female flowers, and thus some fruit. Bees pollinate the flowers. Flowering time and duration depend on latitude and genotype. In the natural habitat, flowering takes place from January to April, followed by the major fruiting season between May and October. The minor fruiting season is between November and March. Some D. edulis trees flower early, while others flower late and may produce blossoms continuously for several months. |
| Dactyladenia barteri | The monkey fruit usually flowers during the dry season, between October and February in West Africa. Fruits mature at the beginning of the rainy season, between March and May. D. barteri is open-pollinated, the main pollinators being red ants. |
| Dalbergia melanoxylon | Dalbergia species are visited by bees. Like most members of the Papilionoideae subfamily, its flowers are closed with a tripping mechanism that requires specialized manipulation, excluding all but bees as pollinators. Wind pollination seems very minor due to the tree’s enclosed anthers and limited pollen production. All members of the tribe Dalbergiae that have been tested are found to be self-incompatible. |
| Diospyros kaki | D. kaki trees flower in March; are usually either male or female, but some trees have both male and female flowers. On male plants, occasional perfect (bisexual) flowers occur, producing an atypical fruit. A tree's sexual expression can vary from one year to the other. Many cultivars are parthenocarpic, although some climates require pollination for adequate production. When plants are pollinated, they will produce fruits with seeds and may be larger and have a different flavor and texture than do their seedless counterparts. Many cultivars begin to bear 3-4 years after planting out; others after 5-6 years. Shedding of many blossoms, immature and nearly mature fruits is characteristic of the Japanese persimmon as well as the tendency toward alternate bearing. Harvesting takes place in fall and early winter. Late ripening cultivars may be picked after hard frosts or light-snowfall. |
| Diospyros mespiliformis | D. mespiliformis is dioecious and pollinated by bees. Flowering takes place in the rainy season while fruit ripening, which coincides with the dry season takes place 6-8 months after flower fertilization. In southern Africa, flowering occurs from October to November and fruiting from April to September. |
| Dovyalis caffra | The species is dioecious. In southern Africa, flowering and fruiting occur from November to January. D. caffra starts to fruit when at least 3 years old. Pollination is carried out by insects, and fruits are developed within 4 months. |
| Durio zibethinus | Durio species flower once or twice a year. The bisexual flowers open during the night and are pollinated by moths and other night-flying insects. In Thailand, the honeybee Apis cerana collects nectar early in the morning but no evidence has been obtained that it pollinates the flowers. At least one bat species, Eonycteris spelaea, pollinates D. zibethinus and its near relatives. Production of the durian fruit is seasonal and is prone to alternate bearing. The 2 main ripening seasons in Malaysia are November-February and June-August. Animals involved in the propagation of D. zibethinus include civet cat, elephant, tiger, deer, rhinoceros and monkeys. They are attracted by the durian scent and may ingest the seeds while feeding on the arils, thereby dispersing them. |
| Ekebergia capensis | Where conditions are favourable, E. capensis is covered with flowers every year, although in unfavourable localities trees may flower sparsely and only once in several years. In southern Africa, trees flower from September to November, and fruiting occurs from December to April but may occur as late as June; in Zambia, flowers appear between August and October and fruits November to January. Pollination is by bees and ants. Fruits are eaten by monkeys and birds, which help to disperse the seed. |
| Elaeis guineensis | Male and female flowers are borne on the same plant but open at different times, so that cross-pollination is necessary. A male inflorescence contains 700-1200 flowers and may yield 80 g of pollen over a 5-day period. The female flower is larger and receptive to pollen for 36-48 hours. Honeybees are attracted by the pollen scented like anise seed, which they collect as they gather nectar. It has not been established whether the bees contribute to pollination. However, The weevil Elaeidobius kamerunicus has been found to be a successful pollinator. Fruit development commences immediately after fertilization. Black vultures (Coragypt atratus) feed avidly on E. guineensis and are involved in its dispersal. |
| Emblica officinalis | Cross-pollination is desirable. Honeybees work the flowers in the morning and late evening. It is now known that lack of pollination is the cause of up to 70% shedding of flowers in the first 3 weeks after onset of blooming. The emblic is sensitive to day-length. In northern India, flowering takes place from March to May. In Madras, the tree blooms in June-July and again in February-March, the second flowering producing only a small crop. In Florida flowering occurs during the summer months, the main crop maturing during the winter and early spring. A few fruits developed from late blooms are found in summer and fall. |
| Endospermum malaccense | E. malaccense bears fruits at a very early age, normally between 2-3 years of age. It flowers twice a year from February to March and from August to September. Small insects, such as bees and flies, pollinate the species. |
| Eriobotrya japonica | A hermaphroditic species, the self-incompatibility of E. japonica is gametophytic. Cloned trees flower readily within 1-2 years, but worthwhile fruit set takes a few more years. Honeybees are its pollen vectors. After fertilization, the fruit develops very rapidly. Birds and bats disperse the fruit. |
| Erythrina edulis | E. edulis is cross pollinated by sucking insects, bees, wasps and birds. Seeds mature in about 3 months after flowering. |
| Erythrina indica | In India, the rich, red blooms make their striking appearance among the leafless branches in January-March. The short lived flowers are quickly followed by the new leaves in early summer. A coral tree in full bloom is like an aviary. Crows, Mynahs, rosy-pastors, babblers and parakeets, as well as numerous bees and wasps swarm round to eat nectar, pollinating the trees. Soon after flowering, the big green pods begin to form. |
| Eucalyptus camaldulensis | Time of flowering in natural stands depends on the geography of a given location. Pollination is by insects such as blow flies, ants and bees, and by birds and small mammals. Seeds ripen about 6 months later. E. camaldulensis does not develop resting buds and grows whenever conditions are favourable. |
| Eucalyptus citriodora | E. citriodora is cross-pollinated, and the pollinating agents are usually blow flies, ants and, in particular, bees. The periodicity of reproduction of E. citriodora seems to be altered when it is planted outside its natural range. In Australia, it bears seed only every 3-5 years, while it fruits abundantly every year when grown as an exotic species in Brazil. |
| Eucalyptus grandis | The flowers are bisexual, with fertile male and female organs on the same flower. Pollination is dependent on insects or animal vectors. Like many Eucalyptus species, it has a tendency to out-breed. |
| Eucalyptus robusta | Under optimal conditions, E. robusta begins flowering by the end of its 3rd growing season. More commonly, trees begin flowering when they are 5 years old. The flowers are insect pollinated. In Australia, flowering occurs from May to July, while in more tropical areas, such as Hawaii and Puerto Rico, flowers may appear at almost any time of the year. Flowering is protandrous, and the fruits mature 5-7 months after flowering. Seed dispersal is largely by wind and may begin within 6 weeks after the capsule ripens. |
| Eucalyptus urophylla | Flowering usually starts within 2 years from planting. The bisexual flowers are open to many pollen vectors such as insects, birds or small mammals. Some wind pollination is also possible. There is a capacity for selfing if out-crossing fails. This is an evolutionary advantage in the survival of the populations. |
| Euphorbia tirucalli | Plants usually produce male flowers. Female flowers or plants much less common. Plants with bisexual cyathia also occur, although the female flower apparently often aborts. E. tirucalli flowers in October and fruits from November-December and is pollinated by insects. |
| Faidherbia albida | The flowering of individual trees is often not uniform. Principle pollinators are the Scoliidae, Eumonidae (Hymenoptera) and the Lycanidae (Lepidoptera). Observed production of seed by isolated trees is an indication that there is no strict self-incompatibility. The plant has an ‘inverted phenology’--deciduous in the wet season and foliated in the dry season. First flowering occurs in the seventh year and subsequent flowerings occur 1-2 months after the start of the dry season for up to 5 months. Ripe fruit falls towards the end of the dry season. The seeds are dispersed by animals, which eat the pods. |
| Faurea saligna | F. saligna is hermaphroditic. In southern Africa, flowering occurs from August to February, depending on rainfall, and fruiting from October to April. During the flowering season, it produces large quantities of nectar foraged by honeybees, which are probably the pollination vectors. In Zambia, flowering occurs between March and August, and the fruit ripens about 6 months later. |
| Ficus religiosa | F. religiosa flowers in February and fruits in May to June. New leaves appear in April in India. Each species of Ficus has an associated species of agaonid wasp (Hymenoptera: Chalcoidea: Agaonidae) but pollinator wasp for the native F. aurea, Pegoscapus jimenezi (Grandi), has been found intruding into syconia of F. septica and F. religiosa. The pollinator wasp for F. religiosa is Blastophaga quadraticeps. Various birds are potential dispersal agents of F. religiosa seeds including mynah birds (Acridotheres tristis tristis), blue faced doves (Geopelia striata), lace necked doves (Streptopelia chinensis), Japanese white-eye (Zosterops japonicus), Northern cardinals (Cardinalis cardinalis), and house sparrows (Passer domesticus). Other animals such as bats, pigs, rodents, parrots, and monkeys also disperse the fruits. When seeds are dropped on other trees, they germinate. The seedlings rely on the host plant only for anchorage as F. religiosa does not parasitize on other plants. They derive their nutrition from the air and rainfall, until the roots reach the ground. |
| Ficus sycomorus | In southern Africa, flowering and fruiting occur throughout the year, with a peak from July to December. Small wasps (Ceratosolen arabicus), which develop in some of the flowers and live symbiotically inside the syconium, pollinate the unisexual flowers. Bats achieve seed dispersal. |
| Ficus thonningii | Flowers unisexual, pollinated by small wasps, which develop in some of the flowers and live symbiotically inside the syconium. Seed dispersal is achieved by bats. In southern Africa, flowering and fruiting are observed for most of the year with the peak period in October. |
| Funtumia africana | Flowers insect pollinated. |
| Garcinia gummi-gutta | Seed-grown plants start bearing after 10-12 years whereas grafts from the third year onwards and will attain the stage of full bearing at the age of 12-15 years. In India, flowering occurs in January-March and fruits mature in July. There are also reports of off-season bearers, bearing twice annually. The orange yellow mature fruits either drop from the tree or are harvested manually. The rind is separated for processing immediately after harvest. G. gummi-gatta flowers in the dry season. It appears to be pollinated by wind, bees and small weevils of the genus Deleromus (Curculionidae). Monkeys (Presbytus entellus and Macaca radiata) and species of civets (Paradoxorus hermaphroditus and P. jerdonii) disperse the fruits. The seeds are consumed by two species of arboreal squirrels (Ratufa indica and Funambulus palmaram). |
| Genipa americana | In the Amazon, genipap flowers in May-September and fruits in September-April. In Brazil, the tree flowers in November and the fruits appear in the markets in February and March. It takes up to one year for the fruits to mature. The trees begin to set fruits when they are about 6 years old. Bees mostly pollinate the flowers while fruits are dispersed either by water or by animals that feed on the soft pulp surrounding the seeds |
| Gevuina avellana | The tree is hermaphrodite but seems to require or benefit from out-crossing. Flowering starts from February-May in the late Chilean summer and early autumn, attracting a variety of insect pollinators including honeybees. Fruits ripen at the following year’s flowering time. Trees take up to 7 years before fruiting. |
| Gleditsia triacanthos | Grafted seedlings begin to bear pods after 3 years and within 8 years will produce a dry weight of pods of 20-75 kg/tree. In the southern United States, the bee-pollinated flowers appear from early May and to late June in the north. Mature pods begin to drop by mid-September and continue throughout the winter. Seeds ripen from mid- September to late October in the United States. |
| Gliricidia sepium | G. sepium has hermaphrodite flowers and is strongly outcrossing with a robust self-incompatibility mechanism. It is insect pollinated, the most frequent visitor being the black bee, Xylocopa fimbriata. In natural populations, timing of flowering and seed production are predictable and uniform within a population, although there is no strict synchrony in flowering. In many parts of the naturalized range and where G. sepium is an exotic, flowering can occur any time of the year if there is no pronounced dry season; 10 days after the 1st petals emerge, and when they are approximately 15 mm long, the flower has fully opened. Individual flowers persist for a variable length of time depending on climatic conditions, but most last only 24-48 hours. Pod-ripening time ranges between 35 and 60 days. Pods can grow to full size within 3 weeks of fertilization. On maturity, pods dehisce explosively; tension builds up in the pod valves and the seeds are ejected to a distance of 25 m. This phenomenon facilitates rapid establishment, especially in disturbed sites. Wind plays a part in the direction of seed dispersal. Secondary dispersal by rain is also possible. |
| Gmelina arborea | Seed years recorded from various locations show that the tree seeds well every year. There are 2 peak periods for floral bud burst, which may vary from year to year, and with the local climatic conditions. The first flowers are borne 3-4 years after planting and, in nature, self-pollination is discouraged by the floral morphology. However, in controlled self-pollination, flowers develop into fruits. Many types of insects visit the flower showing that the flowers may be insect-pollinated. Birds and bats, attracted by the smell of fruits, are the main seed dispersal agents. Mature fruits are produced 1 week after flowering peak and fruiting may be spread over a 2-month period. In India, the species flowers from February to March and fruits ripen from the end of April to June. |
| Grevillea robusta | The tree first flowers when about 6 years old. In its natural range, flowering occurs over a few weeks in October-November, but when planted in equatorial latitudes, flowering is sporadic throughout the year or absent, as in Jakarta. The flowers are bisexual, and pollen is shed before the stigma becomes receptive. Pollinating agents include honeybees, birds and arboreal marsupials (Phalangeridae), which collect nectar and pollen from flowers. The period from fertilization to fruit maturity is about 2 months. Fruit opens during hot, dry weather, releasing the seeds, which can be carried considerable distances by wind. In Java, G. robusta has mature fruit from September to January. Seed dispersal is by wind. |
| Grewia tenax | G. tenax is hermaphroditic and insect pollinated. |
| Hevea brasiliensis | Male and female flowers are produced on the same inflorescence in the ratio of 1:60-80. Flowering lasts about 2 weeks. Some male flowers open first, then drop after a day, followed by female flowers, which are open for 3-5 days, after which the rest of the male flowers then open. Neither male nor female flowers secrete nectar, but much is secreted by the extra-floral nectaries (on young leaf petioles and fleshy scales of young shoots). The flowers are pollinated by insects such as honeybees and midges (genera Atrichopogon, Dasyhelea, Forcipomyia). Only a few clones are self-incompatible, but most benefit from cross-pollination or from hand pollination. After pollination, fruits mature in 6-7 months and dehisce explosively, scattering seeds some distance away (e.g. 33 m) from the mother trees. |
| Hibiscus sabdariffa | H. sabdariffa is a hermaphroditic and insect pollinated shrub. The species hybridizes with Hibiscus cannabinus. Roselle plants exhibit marked photoperiodism, not flowering at short days of 13.5 hours, but flowering at 11 hours. In the United States plants do not flower until short days of late fall or early winter. |
| Hopea odorata | Hopea flowers and fruits almost regularly every two years. It is pollinated by thrips (Thysanoptera). The period between anthesis and maturity of the fruit is about three months. The small white and fragrant flowers appear between February and April and the fruits ripen at the beginning of the rainy season in May and June. The fruits are dispersed by wind and seeds germinate readily on falling to the ground. |
| Hyeronima alchorneoides | H. alchorneoides is evergreen with leaves emerging and abscising continuously. The tree is readily recognized in the forest due to the presence of red, pre-senescent leaves in the canopy all year round. Trees are reproductively mature by the time they are 30 cm in dbh. In many places, flowering and fruiting takes place twice a year. The time of flowering can vary according to rainfall and altitude and sometimes there seems to be no fixed seasonality of the seed production. In Costa Rica, the trees flower in May-July and sporadically in November-January. The peak of seed production is in January-March. Small insects pollinate the flowers and the species has obligate cross-pollination. The fruits are fleshy, sweet mesocarp, and are dispersed by monkeys and birds |
| Irvingia gabonensis | I. gabonensis is hermaphroditic, with flowers being pollinated by Coleoptera, Diptera, Hymenoptera and Lepidoptera. In Nigeria, flowering is from March to June and there are 2 fruiting seasons, from April to July and September to October. Seed dispersal is by specialized vertebrates, such as elephants. |
| Irvingia wombolu | I. wombolu flowers at the end of the rainy season (October-November), but depending on conditions, flowering time overlaps in some years and regions. Fruiting is at the end of the dry season (February-April). The flowers, appearing 6-10 years after planting, are insect pollinated. There is no evidence of hybridization with the closely related I. gabonensis. There is a decrease in genetic similarity over distance. Results from RAPD analysis indicate marked (similarity estimates) differences between Cameroonian and Nigerian material. Southern Nigeria and southern Cameroon material harbour rare alleles and significantly high levels of genetic diversity. Fruits passed out in elephant dung show successful germination. Red forest pigs and squirrels open the pyrenes eating the seeds only. |
| Jatropha curcas | Pollination is by insects. The rare hermaphroditic flowers can be self-pollinating. After pollination the trilocular ellipsoid fruit is formed. The exocarp remains fleshy until the seeds are mature. In Thailand, there are 2 flowering peaks, in November and May. In permanently humid equatorial regions, flowering occurs throughout the year. Fruit development needs 90 days from flowering until seeds mature. Shrubs begin to produce at 4-5 months and reach full productivity at about 3 years. The female flowers are 4-5 times more numerous than the male ones. |
| Khaya nyasica | The flower is small, white and sweet scented. A many-flowered raceme or panicle develops at the end of the dry season or at the beginning of the rainy season, mainly during November. The flowers are known to be insect pollinated. In South Africa, the fruits from the previous year’s flowers ripen between March and July and even later. Seeds are winged and spiral on the air for some distance away from the mother tree. |
| Khaya senegalensis | K. senegalensis is insect pollinated. Flowering shortly before or early in the rainy season, the fruit apparently remaining on the tree throughout the dry season. When the fruit ripens, the colour changes from grey to black. Begins to bear seed when the tree is 20-25 years old. Seed may be dispersed up to 100 m by prevailing winds. |
| Lagerstroemia speciosa | Trees shed leaves in the dry season. Saplings flower when only a few years old but viable seed production begins at 15 years old. Flowering is frequent, usually annually or even twice a year. Each flower lasts for only 2-3 days. In the Philippines, the tree flowers in April-June, in Java in July-October, and in Papua New Guinea in May-July, although flowers and fruits may be found throughout the year. Pollination is by large bees and seeds are dispersed by wind. |
| Leucaena salvadorensis | Trees are wholly or partially deciduous, losing some or all of their leaves for 1-4 months during the dry season. Flowering starts immediately following seed dispersal in the mid to late dry season. There is a major burst of flowering that often coincides with leaflessness as pods are shed. Trees are covered with sweetly scented flowers for a number of weeks and visited by a large number of bees, assumed to play a role in the pollination. The precise time required for pod ripening is unknown. However, it is suspected that pods take approximately 10-11 months to ripen. |
| Litchi chinensis | L. chinensis requires seasonal temperature variations for best flowering and fruiting. Warm, humid summers are best for flowering and fruit development, and a certain amount of winter chilling is necessary for flower-bud development. Usually male flowers appear first, then the females and imperfect bisexual flowers. Pollination is effected by a number of insects including flies, ants and wasps, but bees are very effective. |
| Macadamia integrifolia | Floral initiation takes place when temperatures drop and trees become quiescent in autumn, the optimum temperature being 18 deg. C. The initials remain dormant for 50-96 days; the racemes extend after a rise in temperature and some rain. In Australia high yields are associated with a strong and early spring flush before anthesis, followed by minimal shoot growth throughout the 6-month nut development period. At the end of nut development, there is a late summer flush; meanwhile nuts may be retained on the tree for a further 3 months, but gradually they fall. The flowers are protandrous, the anthers dehiscing 1-2 days before anthesis, whereas the stigma does not support pollen tube growth until 1-2 days after anthesis. Pollination is by insects; most cultivars are at least partly self-incompatible. Planting pollinator trees and introducing bees are important for good fruit set. Fruitlets continue to be shed up to 2 months after bloom. |
| Malpighia glabra | In Puerto Rico flowering appeared to be independent of the daylength and several cropping periods are possible per year, especially with alternating dry and rainy periods. The flowers are pollinated by insects; honey bees substantially improve fruit set. Self- and cross-incompatibiliy have been reported. Fruits ripen completely 3-4 weeks after flowering. In Puerto Rico the large-fruited (up to 20 g/fruit) selection B-15 is most important. |
| Mangifera indica | Individual trees often flower irregularly; some trees do not flower for periods of 10-20 years, sometimes even longer. Flowering starts at the beginning of the rainy season and fruits ripen at the end of the rainy season. Bisexual and male flowers appear on the same cluster, in proportions that vary from 1:4 to 2:1. Evidence from various countries shows that some cultivars develop fruit without fertilization but that others need cross-pollination; the determining factors are not yet well understood. Pollinators are nectarivorous bats and insects such as flies, ants and possibly thrips, but bees are the most effective. Rain and high humidity at blossoming reduce pollination and fruit setting. Usually only small proportions of the flowers develop into fruit. Hermaphrodite flowers are predominantly outcrossing and exhibit protogynous dychogamy, but trees are generally self-compatible, and self-fertilization by pollen from the same flower is possible. It has been shown that 65-85% of hermaphrodite flowers remain unpollinated and that only 0.1-0.25% of them reach the harvesting stage, with fruit drop occurring at all stages. The time of development after fertilization to maturity of fruit is 2-5 months, depending on the cultivar and temperature. Fruiting is often biennial; some cultivars, in addition to the main fruiting seasons, set a few fruits throughout the year. The fruits are eaten and dispersed by bats, hornbills, porcupines, monkeys, elephants and humans. |
| Markhamia lutea | M. lutea trees flower for much of the year. In western Kenya, flowering occurs from August to September, followed by seeding in February to March, while east of Mt Kenya, the flowering period is December to January and the seeding period July to August. Fruits develop within 6 months of insect pollination. |
| Mesua ferrea | It flowers during the dry season and flushes of new leaves are produced just after flowering at the start of the rainy season. The bisexual flowers open for one day, between 3 and 4 a.m. and closing around sunset. Thrips sp. and T. hawaiiensis visit the flowers oftenly and breed within the young inflorescences. |
| Michelia champaca | The tree flowers and fruits throughout the year. The flowers are protogynous and are pollinated by beetles, which feed on the stigmas, pollen, nectar and secretion from the petals. This species is thought to hybridize with M. montana giving rise to M. alba which rarely produces fruits and is unknown in the wild. |
| Moringa oleifera | The bisexual, oblique, stalked, axillary and heteromorphic flowers are highly cross-pollinated due to heteromorphism. The carpenter bees (Xylocopa latipes and X. pubescens) have been found the most reliable and appropriate pollinators. Sunbirds Nectaria zeylanica and N. asiatica have also been observed to be active pollinators. |
| Neobalanocarpus heimii | N. heimii, unlike most dipterocarps, sets flowers and fruits annually, the times varying from year to year. Generally, in Malaysia flowering time is in March-November while fruiting is January-December. The fruits ripen about 5 months following first appearance of flowers Planted trees have been known to set fruit as early as the age of ten years. Pollination is by insects especially honeybees. Seed dispersal is by rolling hill slopes or animals. |
| Nephelium lappaceum | The perfect flowers are functionally pistillate or staminate. Most commercial cultivars behave hermaphroditically and are self fertile, with 0.05-0.9% of the functional females possessing functional stamens. Insect pollination is necessary. Depending on the cultivar, flowering may spread over a period of 23-38 days, with an average of 3.4% setting fruit. Fruits may be produced in large bunches, with 40-60 fruits/panicle, but most often only 12-13/panicle are retained to maturity. Final fruit set is usually between 0.7-1.45%. Time required from fruit set to harvest is about 105-115 days. |
| Parkia biglobosa | Anthesis is at dusk; large quantities of nectar and pollen are produced, and capitula may smell foetid and fruity like cow manure; pollination is by bats including Eidolin helvum, Epomophorus gambianus, Micropteropus pusillus and Nanonycheris veldkampi; seed set can occur in the absence of bats; honeybees, flies, wasps, ants, tenebrionid beetles and tettigometid bugs may be involved; sunbirds also visit the capitula but contribute negligibly in pollination; it is possible that some degree of self-incompatibility may occur. Trees 1st fruit at 5-10 years; they vary in precocity; fruits start to ripen just before the 1st rains and continue over most of the season; each hermaphrodite flower is potentially capable of producing a single pod, but this does not happen; up to 20 pods may develop per head, but there are usually fewer; dispersed by animals and birds eating fruits or seeds; pods are eaten by chimpanzees (which sometimes spit out the seeds), baboons, parrots and possibly hornbills; seeds have a thick, resistant testa that can possibly pass through the animal gut unharmed and dormant. |
| Pausinystalia johimbe | The seeds are wind dispersed and their lightness and winged structure means that they can travel long distances, even in the mildest of breezes. The reproductive system is entomophilous. |
| Pentaclethra macroloba | The peak flowering season is April-May and July-August but there is normally some flowering all through the rainy season. In the Atlantic lowlands it is common to see trees bearing flowers as well as immature and mature pods in September -December. The main crop is produced in August-September and in most places there is a minor fructification in November-December The species is out-crossing and probably pollinated by small insects. It begins to produce seeds at a very early age. Trees that grow in open areas with plenty of light tend to start flowering when they are 2 years old. |
| Persea americana | Varieties are classified into A and B types according to the time of day when the female and male flower parts become reproductively functional. New evidence indicates avocado flowers may be both self- and cross-pollinated. Self-pollination occurs during the second flower opening when pollen is transferred to the stigma while cross-pollination may occur when female and male flowers from A and B type varieties open simultaneously. Self-pollination appears to be primarily caused by wind, whereas cross-pollination may be effected by large flying insects such as bees and wasps. Varieties vary in the degree of self- or cross-pollination necessary for fruit set. Some varieties, such as 'Waldin', 'Lula' and 'Taylor' fruit well in solid plantings. Others, such as 'Pollock' and 'Booth 8' (both B types) do not, and it is probably advantageous to plant them in rows alternating with other varieties (A types) which bloom simultaneously to facilitate adequate pollination. |
| Podocarpus falcatus | The development for both the pollinated and un-pollinated female cones takes place to full size though the latter produce empty seeds. This is due to the fact that the pollination by wind, birds, insects and climbing small mammals is delayed by up to a year by a longer maturing period of the pollen. There is typically heavy seeding at intervals of 2-4 years. In southern Africa flowering occurs from September to May and fruiting mostly throughout the year peaking from December to January. |
| Prosopis alba | P. alba is a diploid, self-incompatible species. There is an apparent protogeny, which is a likely indication that at the stage when styles are protruding they are not receptive to insects, and the flowers are not visited by them until later, when anthesis is produced and the flower fully opens. |
| Prosopis chilensis | Flowering regularly in spring and sometimes sporadically again in late summer and like other members of the genus Prosopis, it is diploid, self-incompatible and insect pollinated. |
| Prosopis cineraria | It is evergreen or nearly so. The trees start flowering and fruiting at an early age; five years old coppice shoots produce as fertile seed as the older trees. New leaves appear before or simultaneously with the fall of the old leaves in summer. The small, yellow flowers appear from March to May after the new flush of leaves. The pods are formed soon thereafter and grow rapidly in size. The pods ripen from June to August. Growth of new foliage, flowering and fruiting occurs during the driest months (March-June) when other plants become leafless and dormant. The flowers of P. cineraria are entomophilous and depend on pollinating insects for seed setting. |
| Prosopis juliflora | P. juliflora inflorescence is small, green-yellowish spikes without any particular fragrance or attractiveness, though relished by bees. Flowering begins at the age of 3-4 years. In India, P. juliflora flowers twice a year, in February-March and August-September, and is a prolific seeder. The pods from autumn flowering mature by May or early June and are dispersed before the onset of the monsoon. In drought years, autumn flowering is extremely affected, with trees often failing to flower, but these same trees flower and fruit subsequently when there is adequate rainfall. The bisexual, pealike flowers are cross-pollinated by wind and insects. The seed is disseminated and pretreated by the agency of animals that feed on the pods. |
| Prosopis tamarugo | Despite its anemophilous pollination, insect participation seems important to fructification. The solitary bee, Centris mixta, is the most important insect pollinator. |
| Prunus africana | In its area of natural distribution, P. africana peaks flowering between November and February. Sporadic flowering all year round can be found in the Kakamega Forest of Kenya. Trees produce flowers with male and female parts. Insects pollinate the tree, and fruits, which are highly relished and dispersed by birds and monkeys, develop within 4-6 months. |
| Psidium guajava | The pollen is viable for up to 42 hours and the stigmas are receptive for about 2 days. Bees are the principal pollinators. There is some self- and cross-incompatibility but several cultivars have set fair crops of seedless or few-seeded fruit. Levels of 60-75% selfing have been found in natural populations; this has been used to produce homozygotic varieties that can be propagated from seed. It is not known to what extent erratic flowering through the year affects pollination intensity. One of the most critical botanical characteristics of guava is that flowers are borne on newly emerging lateral shoots, irrespective of the time of year. The floral structure, which makes emasculation difficult and with a juvenile period of 3-5 years limit conventional breeding. Seedlings may flower within 2 years; clonally propagated trees often begin to bear during the first year after planting. Trees reach full bearing after 5-8 years, depending on growing conditions and spacing. The guava is not a long-lived tree (about 40 years), but the plants may bear heavily for 15-25 years. Bats are the main fruit dispersal agents. |
| Pterocarpus indicus | In the Philippines, N. Borneo and Malay Peninsula flowering is mostly in February-May, occasionally in August-November, whereas in Celebes, Moluccas, Carolines, Solomons, and New Guinea, mostly in July-December, occasionally in February-May. A large number of bee species representing many different genera visit narra, indicating insect pollination. Fruit seems to ripen within 4-6 months. |
| Pueraria montana | Kudzu may grow 35 m or more in a single season. Bees have been reported to act as pollinators, and kudzu is said to be cross-pollinated. Outside its native area of distribution seed set is often poor. |
| Pyrus communis | Pears are self-sterile and need more than one variety planted within 12 or 15 m of each other in order to cross-pollinate. It flowers around March-April, while fruiting occurs in July-September. Some varieties (eg Seckel and Bartlett) do not pollinate each other. The pollinators are honeybees. |
| Rhamnus prinoides | Flowering period in southern Africa is between October and December, and fruiting occurs from January to March. Flowers are popular with bees, which probably pollinate them. Fowls eat the fruit and most likely disperse the seeds. |
| Rhizophora mucronata | Rhizophora is usually wind-pollinated. The flowers are bisexual, self-compatible and therefore may be able to self-pollinate. Insects (e.g. bees) have been observed sometimes visiting flowers to look for pollen. |
| Rhododendron arboreum | The hermaphrodite flowers are insect-pollinated. Seed capsules ripen from August through March depending on altitude. The first hybrid rhododendrons were created during the early 1830s by Anthony Waterer, at Knapp Hill in Surry, England. He crossed the rather tender Rhododendron arboreum with the much more hardy Rhododendron caucasicum. The result were plants which were more hardy than Rhododendron arboreum and which had the advantage of repeat blooming. These hybrids are still among the earliest blooming rhododendrons; they bloom when there is a strong possibility of frost. Repeat blooming means that unlike most rhododendrons, all of the flowers don’t open at once; instead they open in succession. If the first blooms get damaged by frost, there are still flower buds which aren’t damaged. Waterer named this hybid family the ‘Nobleanum’ grex. A grex is a family of hybrids which result from the crossing of two species rhododendrons, it even includes crosses of the same species done by different breeders. This term became very confusing and it is no longer used by rhododendron breeders, it is only used to describe antique hybrids. |
| Robinia pseudoacacia | The pealike, bisexual flowers, borne in long dense racemes, are cross-pollinated by insects, such as honeybees, which frequently collect the nectar. Pollen is shed in the bud but is prevented from falling on the stigma by a ring of erect hairs. When an insect depresses the keel (and wing petals) of a flower, the style protrudes and the stigma contacts the insect’s body and pollen carried from another flower. The insect then touches the erect hairs and thus picks the pollen from this flower. Seed crops occur every 1-2 years, beginning at age 3, with an abundant crop every 2 or 3 years. Although it can occur as a polyploid, it is primarily diploid. (n = 10). |
| Sandoricum koetjape | Santol is a hermaphroditic tree flowering after 5-7 years (clonally propagated trees may flower after 3-4 years). Pollination is by insects. Flowers annually and in Peninsular Malaysia the flowering period is so reliable in its timing that it was formerly the signal for the planting of rice. New leaves develop rapidly and flowers appear shortly after the development of new shoots. Fruit maturation takes about 5 months. In the Philippines ripe fruits are present from June-October, and in Thailand from May-July. Bats disperse the seeds. |
| Santalum spicatum | The sandalwood is a hermaphroditic species. Flowering is sporadic because of the irregular rainfall in most areas where S. spicatum grows. Flowers are carrion-scented and nectariferous, attracting a wide range of insect pollinators. Fruits ripen from June-December. Polyembryony is reported for the first time in S. spicatum (from western Australia). Results from preliminary investigations into genetic diversity within S. spicatum in western Australia indicate genetic distance between S. spicatum ecotypes increases linearly with geographic distance. |
| Sesbania bispinosa | S. bispinosa is self-pollinating and requires no isolation for pure seed production. Flowers are mainly pollinated by bees, and ripe pods shatter to release the seeds. |
| Sesbania sesban | S. sesban is assumed to be largely out-crossing, however interspecific hybridization is reported with S. goetzei; the carpenter bee is its main pollinator. Flowering starts shortly after the onset of the rains (in areas where there are 2 rainy seasons, it flowers and sets fruit twice). Pods are indehiscent and do not shed their seeds until well after pod maturity. |
| Shorea javanica | S. javanica is a hermaphroditic, self-incompatible species. Pollen vectors in its natural habitat are insects from the family Thysanoptera. Flowering and fruiting intervals are irregular, possibly every 3-5 years; flowering is gregarious and correlated with a previous drought period. There is a decrease in resin production when the tree is flowering and fruiting, with the tree only gradually reaching its maximum production again 1 year later. Major fruit dispersal agents include wind and water. |
| Shorea negrosensis | The pollinators of S. negrosensis are insects. |
| Shorea robusta | S. robusta is a hermaphroditic, self-incompatible species. Pollen vectors in its natural habitat are insects from the family Thysanoptera. Heavy flowering of the tropical timber genus Shorea has is usually correlated with the previous drought period. Beginning at about age 15, S. robusta bears fruit regularly every 2 years or so, and a good seed-bearing year can be expected every 3-5 years. Major seed dispersal agents include wind and water. |
| Simaruba glauca | The plant is dioecious, with both unisexual and bisexual flowers. It is pollinated by bees. Male trees make up to about 40% of the population in some plantation establishments. Birds relish the ripe drupes and play an important role in seed dispersal. Other fauna that feed on the fruit also help in dispersal, including a lizard species (Ctenosaura similis) in Costa Rica, which ingests the fruit and disperses intact seeds away from the mother trees. |
| Swietenia mahagoni | Flowering and fruiting are regular and annual, varying according to climate but taking place shortly before the rainy season. Development from flower to mature fruit takes about 8-10 months. Flowers are unisexual and the tree is monoecious. Pollination is by insects. Hybridization is frequent, especially with S. macrophylla, wherever the species grow together. Usually 1 flower of the inflorescence develops into a fruit; the other flowers are aborted even if fertilization takes place. The tree fruits well and produces fertile seeds, sometimes as early as at 20 years of age, although usually it does not seed until it is 30-40 years old. Seed production varies according to site and year. |
| Syzygium cordatum | S. cordatum hybridizes freely with S. guineense and S. gerrardii where they occur together. Flowers bloom from spring to winter and are popular with bees and other insects, which are the pollinating agents. The fruits is eaten by numerous animal species that act as the dispersal agents for the seeds. |
| Syzygium cuminii | S. cuminii is never leafless in moist localities; the coppery new leaves start even before the old leaves fall. However, in dry localities, it becomes leafless for a short time in the hot season. In its natural habitat, leaves usually start falling about January and continue doing so through to March. The flower panicles appear from March to May, and fruits ripen in June to August. S. cuminii is pollinated by honey bees, house flies and wind. Fruit formation takes place about 32 days after flowering. In areas experiencing a northeast monsoon on the east coast, the fruits are said to ripen from the middle of August to the middle of September. The fruits are devoured by birds, squirrels and humans and are therefore widely dispersed. |
| Syzygium guineense | S. guineense is able to interbreed with other species in the genus. Pollination agents are insects. Where there are 2 rainy seasons, the species flowers twice: during the short dry season and towards the end of the long rains. In areas with 1 rainy season, the species flowers once, starting towards the end of the dry season and extending into the rainy season. |
| Tecomaria capensis | The cape honeysuckle is dioecious and evergreen; usually flowering after rains from June-November and fruiting from October-February. Pollinated by birds and insects. |
| Tectona grandis | T. grandis is 96-100% self-incompatible. The species is hermaphroditic and pollinated by insects such as black ants, horse flies, and particularly by bees. Fruits mature about 4 months after fertilization. Premature shedding of fruit is a problem. Up to 60% fruit set has been reported following cross-pollination of teak. The individual flower has a 1-day cycle; optimum pollination period is between 1130 h and 1300 h. The height of the tree at the moment of first flowering is important in silviculture. When it is long (it may reach up to 10 m), the final bole form is positively affected, but early-flowering trees may develop extremely wide crowns and short boles. This characteristic is clearly undesirable in timber-crop species and warrants strong selection against flowering in conjunction with increased effort to develop commercial methods of vegetative propagation. The time of the 1st inflorescence is determined by both genetic and environmental factors. In Thailand, flowering normally starts at the age of 8 to 10 years. However, trees have been observed to flower at the age of 3 months, while a few specimens of superior phenotype did not flower until the age of 27 years. Flowers usually appear during the rainy season, and trees tend to flower synchronously. In Thailand, flowering occurs in June-September and fruiting in November-January. In Java, trees flower every year at the beginning of the rainy season (October-November) and only a few flowers (about 1%) develop into fruits. Fruits fall gradually during the dry season. Although natural fruit set in Thailand is low (0.5-5%), 6 to 60% of fruit set can be achieved by artificial pollination. Fruits develop to full size about 50 days after pollination. They are dispersed by wind over 10-15 m and also by running water after heavy rainfall. |
| Tephrosia vogelii | The flowers are bisexual, borne in compact clusters. The stigma is receptive when pollen is released, and self-pollination occurs. Large carpenter bees (Xylocopa brazilianorum) have been reported as principal pollinators. Seed set is low. |
| Terminalia brownii | In Sudan trees flower form April to June, and fruiting occurs from October to November. In Kenya, trees flower in years with normal climatic conditions from March to June. After pollination by insects, fruit development takes about 5-6 months. |
| Terminalia catappa | During winter in Florida, especially after a sudden rain, flowers are shed all at once and are quickly replaced with lustrous, silky, purplish new foliage. In Asia, there is a foliage change twice a year. T. catappa flowers up to 3 times a year. The ratio of male to hermaphroditic (female) florets is 16:1. Terminalia has an effective system of self-incompatibility. Various insects (Coleoptera, Diptera, Hemiptera, Hymenoptera and Lepidoptera) pollinate the flowers. The fruit are eaten and the seeds distributed by fruit bats and birds. The seeds float and can be carried considerable distances on the oceans and still remain viable. |
| Terminalia ivorensis | Terminalia is self-incompatible; the flowers are bisexual. Selection and breeding started in the 1960s in Africa. Since then, trees with superior growth rate and stem form have been selected, and clone banks have been established. Flowering begins in April after the new leaves have begun to appear and lasts until June, in its native range. The interval between the opening of the leaf buds and flowering is 3-4 weeks. The flowers are fertilized by insects. Fruiting, which begins in December, is abundant from January to March. |
| Terminalia prunioides | Trees flower form spring to summer in South Africa, while in Kenya, trees flower in years with normal climatic conditions from March to June. After pollination by insects, fruit development takes about 5-6 months. Brown-headed parrots eat the fruits, and probably disperse the seeds. |
| Terminalia superba | T. superba reaches sexual maturity late and at variable ages, for example 15 years in Cote d’Ivoire and 23 years in Congo. The dates of refoliation and flowering are closely correlated; flowering, which lasts for 2-5 weeks, takes place either as the new leaves are appearing or immediately afterwards. Rarely, 2 periods of flowering may occur if there are 2 deciduous periods. Terminalia has an effective system of self-incompatibility. Various insects (Coleoptera, Diptera, Hemiptera, Hymenoptera and Lepidoptera) pollinate flowers. Fruit develops during the rains and mature at the onset of the dry season to coincide with the leafless period; the duration of fruiting varies from 6 to 9 months. If 2 dry seasons occur, the maximum seed production occurs in the longer of them. Terminalia trees show interprovenance variability with regard to early shedding of leaves, early shedding being negatively correlated with vigour. |
| Theobroma cacao | Cacao is naturally out-breeding, and various insects are associated with its pollination, the main ones being thrips, midges, ants and aphids. It has a complex system of self-incompatibility. After successful pollination, fertilization takes place within 36 hours; the sepals, petals and staminodes drop away and the stamens and pistil wither. The young pod, known as the cherelle, begins to develop by longitudinal elongation, followed by increase in width. The period between fertilization and pod maturation varies from 150 to 180 days, depending on the variety. The pod turns light yellow when ripe and is ready for harvesting at this stage. |
| Toona sureni | The tree is deciduous, the leaves being shed during the dry season (February-March or September-October) in its native range. Flowering and fruiting normally occur twice annually (December-February and April-September) synchronized with the shedding of leaves. In Indonesia, fruits are harvested in either March or October. The fruits are shed after the leaves. A wide range of insects pollinate the flowers. Fruits are normally produced in large quantities. |
| Triplochiton scleroxylon | Colourful petals and a pleasant strong scent from recently opened flowers suggest that the flowers are insect pollinated, making them self-sterile. The production of viable seed depends on cross-pollination. Large quantities of fruit are produced at intervals of a few years with very little fruit in the intervening years. |
| Vitellaria paradoxa | The hermaphroditic flowers are usually cross-pollinated, but can be self-pollinated. Insects, especially bees, are important for pollination. Flowering lasts 30-75 days and the fruit takes 4-6 months to develop, reaching maturity early in the rainy season. The sugary pulp of the fruit makes it attractive to a wide range of animals. A large variety of birds, ungulates and primates, including humans, eat them, dispersing the seed in the process. |
| Vitex cofassus | V. cofassus is deciduous, shedding its leaves in the dry season. Flowering and fruiting differs according to geographic distribution. In South Sulawesi, flowering usually occurs in the rainy season and the fruits mature between August and November. In general, this species flowers almost annually from the age of 5 years. The flowers are pollinated by insects, possibly bees. |
| Warburgia salutaris | Insects pollinate the bisexual flowers and birds disperse the fruit. In South Africa, flowering time is from April to May and fruiting from October to January. |
| Ziziphus abyssinica | In southern Africa, flowers appear between December and February and fruits from June to September. In Zambia, flowers appear from October to March, with some casual flowering in May to June; fruits mature from April to August, often persisting on the tree until November. In North America, flowers appear in the spring and fruit matures from July to November. Pollination vectors are bees. |
| Ziziphus mauritiana | Some cultivars attain anthesis early in the morning, others do so later in the day. The flowers are protandrous. Hence, fruit set depends on cross-pollination by insects attracted by the fragrance and nectar. The pollen of the flower is described as ‘heavy and thick’. In India, different species of honeybees (Apis spp.) and house flies (Musca domestica) are reported to be important pollinators; the wasps Polistes hebraceus and Physiphora spp. have also been observed on flowers. Cross-incompatibility occurs, and cultivars have to be matched for good fruit set; some cultivars produce good crops parthenocarpically. Fruit development takes 4 months in early cultivars to 6 months in late ones. In Southeast Asia, Z. mauritiana flowers concurrently with shoot growth in the wet season. Mammals and birds disperse the fruits. |
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