World Agroforestry Centre | agroforestree database 4.0

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This database provides detailed information on a total of 670 agroforestry tree species. It is intended to help field workers and researchers in selecting appropriate species for agroforestry systems and technologies.

For each species, the database includes information on identity, ecology and distribution, propagation and management, functional uses, pests and diseases and a bibliography.

This project has been funded by the British Department for International Development (DFID, the European Union and the World Agroforestry Centre (ICRAF).

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Ailanthus excelsa	The flowers appear in large open clusters among the leaves towards the end of the cold season. Male, female and bisexual flowers are intermingled on the same tree. The fruits ripen just before the onset of the monsoon. The seeds are very light and are dispersed far and wide by the wind.
Ailanthus triphysa	A. triphysa is monoecious and deciduous. Flowering in India and Nepal is between February and March, fruiting follows in April-May.
Albizia amara	The yellow or pinkish-white, fragrant flower heads appear mainly in the rainy season, and the fruits ripen in the cold season.
Allanblackia floribunda	Flowering occurs in September to February with fruits developing slowly, but in Nigeria they are available in most seasons. Short-tongued insects pollinate this species. Monkeys such as Lophocebus albigena, Cercopithecus pogonias, Cercopithecus cephus, Cercopithecus pogonias and Cercopithecus nictitans eat the flowers and fruits, thus dispersing the seeds.
Alnus acuminata	A. acuminata may begin flowering at 4-5 years from seed (3 to 4 years from field planting). Male and female flowers are in separate catkin shaped inflorescences on the same tree. Clusters of male catkins are long (10-12 cm) and hanging, opening in mid-winter to release wind-borne pollen. Female catkins are borne in erect clusters and are condensed into a lignified cone (1.2-2 cm) from which approximately 100 winged seeds emerge when the cone dries in late summer. Phenology is variable according to latitude. In its southernmost distribution in the Andes, and in southern New Zealand this Alder sheds its leaves toward the end of March-April and sprouts new ones in September-October. Flowering begins in June-July. Provenances from tropical latitudes (mountains of Ecuador to Costa Rica) may shed there leaves gradually so they are never bare.
Altingia excelsa	In Java, the species flowers and fruits throughout the year. The peak flowering is in April-May. The peak fruiting season (the best period for seed collection) is August -October. The morphology of the flower (the petals and sepals are absent and there are numerous stamens) indicates wind pollination. The seeds are sweetly scented and dispersed by ants and to a lesser extent by monkeys and birds that feed on the seeds.
Antiaris toxicaria	A. toxicaria is monoecious. African fruit material is bigger than Polynesian material. In Java A. toxicaria flowers in June on the new shoots while in Kenya March is the peak seeding time. The soft fruit is dispersed by birds, bats, monkeys, and antelopes.
Araucaria bidwillii	Araucarias generally begin to flower and fruit between the ages of 15 and 20 years. Male and female flowers are typically found on different parts of the same tree. Male flowers usually appear at the base of the crown in young trees and female flowers at the top. As the tree grows older, the male and female flowers move closer to each other. Bisexual flowers are also found. After pollination, the female flowers develop slowly; the cones mature in about 2 years. They disintegrate on the tree or fall to the ground and disintegrate. Seed quality varies annually; if sufficient pollen is available, seed quality is usually good. The seeds generally fall within the periphery of the crown. In Queensland it flowers from September to October and fruits occur in January to February. Seeds disperse as the fruits mature. Trees bear seeds in 1-2 year intervals.
Araucaria cunninghamii	Female flowering commences when it is about 12 years old while male flowering does not occur until it is 22-27 years. However in seed orchards of this species the age of production of male cones has been reduced to only 5 years and female cones from about 12 to 2-3 years using physiologically mature grafting material. The seed production is often unreliable and low; a time lapse of 8-10 years between good seed crops is common (Schmidt, 2000).
Areca catechu	Arecanut palm is a monoecious plant with male and female flowers occurring on the same spadix. Every year 3-4 inflorescences are produced. The first inflorescence on young palms may produce only male flowers. The male flowers open for a few hours, shedding pollen most in the morning; bees and other insects collect this. The average male flowering period is 2-4 weeks; after this the stigmas in female flowers become receptive for 3-4 days. The sweet-scented male flowers are visited by bees and other insects for nectar, but insects have not been observed visiting the female flowers. It is thought that most of the flowers are wind pollinated.
Arenga pinnata	This monoecious palm first flowers when around 10-12 years old; however, sometimes it flowers as early as 5-6 years. Maturity is indicated by simultaneous appearance of 2 short leaves at the top of the stem. The average flowering period of an untapped tree is 4-6 years.
Artocarpus altilis	A. altilis trees are monoecious -- male and female flowers occur separately on the same tree. Male inflorescence emerges before the female. Pollen is shed 10-15 days after the emergence of the male inflorescence, for a period of about 4 days. Female flowers are receptive 3 days after the emergence of the female inflorescence from the bracts and open in successive stages, with basal flowers opening 1st. As with other members of its genus, A. altilis is cross-pollinated. Honeybees have been observed actively working the male inflorescence and collecting pollen, especially from fertile, seeded accessions. Other insects such as earwigs have also been observed on the male inflorescence. Only a few flowers in the male inflorescence of seedless A. altilis produce and release pollen. Pollen grains from fertile cultivars are uniformly shaped and stain well, while triploid cultivars have the lowest pollen sustainability, averaging 6-16%. Pollen grains are typically malformed, clumped and poorly stained. A. altilis is diploid (2n = 56) and triploid (2n = 84). Asexually propagated trees start fruiting in 3-6 years.
Bombacopsis quinata	B. quinata is a monoecious species that is highly self-incompatible. It flowers at the beginning of the dry season. The stigmas of the flower protrude slightly from the anther, which appears to be an adaptation to avoid self-pollination. When the flower opens, the pistil is receptive and the pollen on the anthers is ready to be transported by pollinating agents, primarily bats (Glossophaga sorisina) and occasionally nocturnal moths. The bats are attracted to the flowers by the nectar located in nectar sacs in the ovary. Pollination occurs as the pollinators move among the trees to collect nectar. Capsule ripens after 3-4 months, releasing wind-dispersed seeds.
Bridelia micrantha	Male and female flowers are separate but on same tree; female flowers sessile. In southern Africa, flowering occurs from September to December and fruiting from January to April. The seeds are spread by birds, which feed on them and distribute them in their faeces.
Brosimum alicastrum	It is monoecious. Its pollination mechanism is not precisely known but it is probably wind pollinated. Seed-eating birds disperse the seed.
Bucida buceras	Flowering occurs throughout the year in Puerto Rico and in Florida it takes place in spring. Flowers may be staminate or perfect. Fruits mature in about 3 months, are light, easily blown away by strong winds and float on water.
Caesalpinia sappan	Flowering can occur after 1 year of growth and usually during the rainy season, fruiting about 6 months later. The tree flowers in August in Myanmar, and in Indonesia pods are produced 13 months after planting.
Calophyllum brasiliense	María is monoecious, with male and bisexual flowers on the same tree. In Puerto Rico, flowering occurs in spring and summer, and fruit matures in the fall. In Trinidad & Tobago, maría flowers in September and October, as well as other times, and fruits ripen in May or June. Some trees bear fruit when only 3 years old. The fruits are presumably distributed by bats; dense clumps of seedlings sometimes grow under coconut palms along the coast of Puerto Rico. In Costa Rica, concentrations of maría seeds are found under trees of different species used as feeding roosts by bats. Many of the seeds fall below the parent, where they germinate. On steep slopes, some seeds are carried away after heavy rains. In Puerto Rico, birds, bats and rats disperse the seeds.
Calotropis procera	Highly cross-pollinated through insects such as monarch butterflies. Progeny genetically both divergent and different from its parents (chromosome number 2n = 22). Both animals and wind disperse seeds.
Carapa guianensis	Flowering period depends heavily on the climate but is usually concentrated in 1 short period per year. Pollination is probably by insects; trees are often found swarming with ants visiting extrafloral nectaries at shoot apices and leaflet tips. Usually only 1-2 fruits in an inflorescence mature in 8-12 months. Seeds float and are thus dispersed by water but at least in Costa Rica, are also scatter-hoarded by agoutis and occasionally by pigs.
Carissa edulis	In southern Africa, for example, flowering occurs from September to December and fruiting from November to January. Insects pollinate the bisexual flowers. Fruits are animal dispersed.
Caryota urens	C. urens is monoecious, flowering and leaf flushing continue throughout the year. Since the plants have a determinate growth habit, no new leaves originate after emergence of the 1st terminal inflorescence, which signals the start of the plant’s reproductive phase. Flowering begins at the top of the trunk and often continues downwards for several years (like Arenga pinnata). Individual staminate flowers remain open for 16-20 days, while a single inflorescence has flowers opening for about 6 weeks. The pistillate flowers open for 2-3 weeks after all the staminate flowers have bloomed and remain receptive for 3-13 days. C. urens is an obligate outbreeder. Fruit development takes 32-38 weeks. C. urens flowers after about 15 years in a very conspicuous display from the crown to the base over a period of several years before it finally dies. In Sri Lanka, at maturity, fruits are eaten by the polecat (Paradoxurus hermaphroditus hermaphroditus), which disperses unharmed seeds far from the mother tree. Palm civets and polecats effectively disperse fruits.
Casuarina equisetifolia	C. equisetifolia is wind pollinated. Trees are mostly monoecious. Female cones mature about 18-20 weeks after anthesis and open shortly after this, releasing small samara. Fruit on a tree does not all mature at the same time, often presenting a problem for seed collection. In cultivation, C. equisetifolia hybridizes with C. glauca and C. junghuhniana.
Cedrela odorata	First flowering can be expected after 10-15 years. Flowering is annual, but good seed crops occur every 1-2 years. Seeds of C. odorata in the Philippines ripen in March-June.
Celtis australis	Old leaves are shed in December-January, new ones appear in March-April simultaneously with flowers. Fruits ripen in October-November. Seeds are dispersed by wildlife and birds. The species is self-compatible, and bears bisexual and male flowers.
Chukrasia tabularis	C. tabularis is monoecious, flowers are unisexual. Flowering normally begins when the tree is 8-9 years and in some places there is a masting period every 2-3 years. It flowers and fruits annually; in Southeast Asia, the tree is leafless from December to March. Flowering starts in April and continues until June/July and the fruits ripen in January-March. The winged fruits are disseminated by wind.
Cordia alliodora	Flowering starts 5-10 years after planting but occasionally when trees are 2 years old. Time of flowering and maturation of the fruit varies with locality. C. alliodora is reported to flower at any season in the equitorial climate of Colombia, while it is more synchronized in Central America. Flowers are heterostylous, and a strong incompatibility mechanism (sporophytic diallelic 1-locus) is evident, with a low level of failure. Pollination is predominantly entomophilous, with the small, unspecialized flowers attracting a wide variety of insect pollinators, especially Lepidoptera. The mature fruit is shed with the withered flower still attached, which acts as a parachute when the fruit falls, and possibly assists wind dispersal.
Croton megalocarpus	After pollination by insects, fruit development takes 5 months and mature fruits can be collected from the ground. In Kenya, seeds mature during October-November in central regions, and from January to March in western regions. C. megalocarpus is monoecious, occasionally dioecious.
Croton sylvaticus	Reportedly monoecious, although trees may be predominantly male or female during flowering. Woodland croton flowers from September-January and fruits from December-May. Self fertilization fails either due to protoandry or protogyny.
Cryptomeria japonica	Flowes in February and March. Seeds ripen from October to March. The tree is monoecious, self-fertile and wind pollinated.The cones are produced from about age 10 in most areas and the crop can be heavy. Seed is usually available annually.
Cupressus lusitanica	Trees 1st bear fruit at 6-9 years, or later on unfavourable sites. Flowering takes place at the driest time of the year, with male and female flowers arising at different points on the crown (monosexual). Cones develop within 6 months after wind pollination and take 2 years to mature.
Didymopanax morototoni	Flowering and fruiting nearly throughout the year. Its regeneration is due to birds dispersing the seeds.
Diospyros virginiana	Flowers appear in late spring and early summer, from March to June within its botanical range and from April through May in areas where it grows best. It is cross-pollinated by insects and wind. Fruit matures in mid to late fall (September to November) or occasionally a little earlier. Fruit bearing tends to be biennal with the optimum fruit-bearing age being 25-50 years, but 10-year-old trees sometimes bear fruit. Good crops are borne about every 2 years under normal conditions. The seed is disseminated by birds and animals that feed on the fruits, and, to some extent, by overflow water in low bottom lands. The seeds remain dormant during winter and germinate in April or May, after about a month of soil temperatures above 15° C.
Elaeis guineensis	Male and female flowers are borne on the same plant but open at different times, so that cross-pollination is necessary. A male inflorescence contains 700-1200 flowers and may yield 80 g of pollen over a 5-day period. The female flower is larger and receptive to pollen for 36-48 hours. Honeybees are attracted by the pollen scented like anise seed, which they collect as they gather nectar. It has not been established whether the bees contribute to pollination. However, The weevil Elaeidobius kamerunicus has been found to be a successful pollinator. Fruit development commences immediately after fertilization. Black vultures (Coragypt atratus) feed avidly on E. guineensis and are involved in its dispersal.
Euphorbia tirucalli	Plants usually produce male flowers. Female flowers or plants much less common. Plants with bisexual cyathia also occur, although the female flower apparently often aborts. E. tirucalli flowers in October and fruits from November-December and is pollinated by insects.
Garcinia livingstonei	Flowers in September at the Kenya coast and fruits in February-March. Elsewhere it flowers in June and fruit ripens in August.
Garcinia mangostana	At low altitudes in Sri Lanka, the fruit ripens from May to July; at higher elevations, in July and August or August and September. In India, there are 2 distinct fruiting seasons, one in the monsoon period (July-October) and another from April through June. Puerto Rican trees in full sun fruit in July and August; shaded trees, in November and December.
Ilex mitis	The tree is dioecious and flowers in spring or early summer. Fruits ripen on the female trees in autumn.
Jatropha curcas	Pollination is by insects. The rare hermaphroditic flowers can be self-pollinating. After pollination the trilocular ellipsoid fruit is formed. The exocarp remains fleshy until the seeds are mature. In Thailand, there are 2 flowering peaks, in November and May. In permanently humid equatorial regions, flowering occurs throughout the year. Fruit development needs 90 days from flowering until seeds mature. Shrubs begin to produce at 4-5 months and reach full productivity at about 3 years. The female flowers are 4-5 times more numerous than the male ones.
Litchi chinensis	L. chinensis requires seasonal temperature variations for best flowering and fruiting. Warm, humid summers are best for flowering and fruit development, and a certain amount of winter chilling is necessary for flower-bud development. Usually male flowers appear first, then the females and imperfect bisexual flowers. Pollination is effected by a number of insects including flies, ants and wasps, but bees are very effective.
Lovoa trichilioides	It is a monoecious, evergreen forest tree. Flowers can be found on the tree most of the year and its seeds are wind dispersed.
Morus alba	Flowers are normally bisexual but can be unisexual on different branches of the same plant. Both types appear in stalked, axillary, pendulous catkins in April and May. Fruit ripens and drops off the tree from June to August; water, birds, jackals and human beings often disperse it.
Myristica fragrans	There are both male and female type trees, both required for pollination and fruit set. The seedlings reveal their sex at first flowering. The tree does not flower until around 7-9 years old, when it fruits; it may produce until the 90th year. In other areas it produces fruit 15-20 years after planting and bears fruit throughout the year, but peak harvest season is from December to May. The nuts split open when the fruits are fully ripe.
Nuxia congesta	N. congesta is monoecious, flower buds appear in autumn and develop slowly before blooming.
Paullinia cupana	Guarana is a monoecious, allogamous species. It is fertilized by bees of the genera Melipona and Apis. It is dispersed by birds.
Phyllanthus acidus	Otaheiti gooseberry is monoecious. Flowering and fruiting is mostly in January-May in the Caribbean and throughout the year in Java. The tree flowers between February-April in Florida. Fruits mature in 90-100 days. P. acidus trees start producing a substantial crop at the age of 4 years. The peak fruiting season in the Philippines is in April to June. The fruits often explosively dehisce dispersing their seeds.
Phyllanthus reticulatus	P. reticulatus generally flowers throughout the year.
Pinus caribaea	Young plantations usually start bearing female cones when they are 3-4 years old but these do not produce fertile seed owing to the inadequate supply of pollen at this age, unless older plantations adjoin the site. Male and female flowers are borne on the same plant. The female cones are the equivalent of long shoots whereas the male cones are the equivalent of needle bundles (short shoots). There is a variation in the proportion of male to female cones, with some trees producing almost entirely male cones and others almost entirely female cones.
Pinus patula	P. patula is a monoecious plant. The female flowers are usually borne in the upper crown, and the male ones in the lower crown.
Pinus wallichiana	Seeds production begins at 15-20 years. The trees are strongly out-breeding and self-fertilized seed usually grows poorly. Cones open and shed their seed whilst still on the tree. Leaf secretions inhibit the germination of seeds, thereby reducing the amount of plants that can grow under the trees. New leaves appear in March or early April, according to location, and reach full size by August-September. The needles are shed between June and August. Male flowers appear on the lower branches of the trees in April and May at different altitudes before the emergence of the female cone and shed pollen by June. Cones ripen from early September to November in most locations in its native range. The period between the first appearance of female flowers and the ripening of cones is about 16-18 months
Pometia pinnata	Bisexual and male flowers are reported to occur on a single tree of P. pinnata, but the structurally hermaphrodite flowers are functionally female with no anther dehiscence. Both cross-fertilization and self-fertilization occur. Usually there are 3-4 times as many male as female flowers. Dispersal of the fruits is probably mostly by bats and birds.
Pterocarpus santalinoides	P. santalinoides is monoecious, flowering from December-March, fruits ripening between March-April.
Pterocarpus soyauxii	The African coralwood is monoecious.
Pycnanthus angolensis	The evergreen tree is monoecious, with the asexual flowers on different parts of the same branch. In its natural habitat the flowers are produced in October and November, at the same time as the previous years fruits are ripening. The fruits remain on the tree until about February. Dehiscence takes place on the tree, but many of the fruit clusters fall unopened.
Quercus semecarpifolia	In Nepal, the old leaves begin to fall in May-June, but do not fall entirely until the new leaves are formed. At the lower elevations, the new shoots appear in May, whereas on the higher elevations the new shoots do not commence to appear until June. There is little or no growth of the young acorns in the first season, however, rapid growth ensues in the second season, the acorns of all sizes, many green and others dark brown. It takes about 15 months between the flowering time and time of ripening of acorns. In Nepal, Q. semecarpifolia is an exceptional oak in that it ripen its seeds in the middle of the rains (July/August) as opposed to others, ripening their seeds after the end of the rainy season (October-January). The monoecious flowers are wind pollinated, followed by seed ripening in its second year. It hybridises freely with other members of the genus. Bears, monkeys, squirrels and birds, devour the acorns, dispersing them.
Sapium ellipticum	In southern Africa, flowering occurs from November to April and fruiting from March to August. S. ellipticum is monoecious, flowers are unisexual.
Schinus terebinthifolius	Schinus terebinthifolius is dioecious, has high ecological plasticity, short life cycle and very rapid growth. First seed production may occur at 3 years. The flowers are insect pollinated and seed production is high. Flowering occurs in September to early November. Fruit ripening follows immediately between December and February. Seed dispersal is by animals, particularly birds and mammals including raccoons and possums which account for a major component of dispersal in the USA. Water and gravity are minor dispersal agents.
Simmondsia chinensis	Jojoba is a dioecious, wind-pollinated shrub. Flower buds form in the axiles of leaves. Anthesis occurs in March to June when the soil and air temperature rise to above 15°C. Severe water stress prevents opening of flowers. Fruits ripen April to July and seeds fall to the ground in August (about 3-6 months after fertilization). Seed production is generally limited until the fourth year of growth.
Swietenia macrophylla	Flowering mahogany trees have male and female flowers (about 10 times as many male as female flowers, often only the central flower of a cyme is female), but the flowers of both sexes are similar. Trees are sometimes functionally dioecious. In mixed inflorescences, male flowers open 1st, but self-pollination may occur. Flowering and fruiting are distinctly seasonal. Fruit may be produced once a year, and trees start to produce fruit regularly when about 15 years old. Seeds have a thin, taillike wing that makes them rotate when they fall; they are thus dispersed by wind as far as 500 m from the parent tree.
Swietenia mahagoni	Flowering and fruiting are regular and annual, varying according to climate but taking place shortly before the rainy season. Development from flower to mature fruit takes about 8-10 months. Flowers are unisexual and the tree is monoecious. Pollination is by insects. Hybridization is frequent, especially with S. macrophylla, wherever the species grow together. Usually 1 flower of the inflorescence develops into a fruit; the other flowers are aborted even if fertilization takes place. The tree fruits well and produces fertile seeds, sometimes as early as at 20 years of age, although usually it does not seed until it is 30-40 years old. Seed production varies according to site and year.
Syzygium aromaticum	The clove tree is monoecious, flowers are hermaphrodite and self-pollinating. The tree matures between 8-10 years after planting. Fruits mature approximately 9 months after flower initiation and are considered physiologically mature when the exocarp turns reddish-purple in colour. Flowering varies between areas, in India flowering is from February-May, in Zanzibar (Tanzania) July-September and October-January. Fruiting normally occurs 5-6 months after flowering.
Tamarix aphylla	The leaves and branchlets are shed during the cold season, the new shoots and leaves appear about May. The species is monoecious and the small pinkish flowers appear from May to July, and capsules ripen in the cold season. In some parts of India, the seeds ripen in the middle of July to middle November. Ripe capsules turn brown, gradually open up and the seed is blown away.
Zanthoxylum gilletii	Z. gillettii is monoecious. After pollination, the development of the subglobose fruits takes about 3 months. Flowering is very irregular, a phenomenon attributed to climatic conditions.